Harpsichord

Description of the instrument

General information

The harpsichord strictly speaking with the shape of a toothing-stone laid out horizontally, because of its chromatic plan of cords, of which one of the large east coasts an exponential curve. This form is close to that of a right-angled triangle. The keyboards are placed on the small side of the Right angle. On the left (low notes), the trunk is rectilinear: this wall is called the spine. On the right (acute notes) the Hypotenuse, which is concave follows the mathematical progression lengths of cords, it is the fish-plate curve; it joined the spine by a tail or Pointe rectilinear or convex. The Grand piano borrowed this form.

The large harpsichord “with the old” measurement approximately two meters fifty length out of one meter broad; it can thus easily be moved by two people. Its extent covers approximately five octave S of F in Fa5 or Sol5 (the modern piano generally comprises 88 keys and thus covers more than seven octaves). The structure is in Bois. Contrary to the piano, the harpsichord with old does not comprise a metal framework.

Cords

The cord S, at a rate of two to three cords per note, consist of a simple wire (diameters from 0,18 to 0,65 mm) and contrary to those of the piano, they “are not spun”. They can be in Fer, Laiton, Cuivre, or Bronze, and are laid out in the direction the biggest length (of the keyboard towards the point).

Towards the point, each one of them is fixed at a point of hangs located close to the curved fish-plate. At the other end - i.e. close to the keyboard - each one is rolled up on ankle agreement which makes it possible to regulate the tension, therefore the height of the emitted sound. Between these two fixed points, the cord spans two hard pieces of wood: sillet (fixed on the diagrid) and rest (stuck on the sounding board), whose position fixes the working length i.e. setting in vibration and emitting the sound. On the sillet as on the rest, the cord is guided by metal points which make it possible to fix its position precisely.

The sounding board

The vibrations of the cords are transmitted to the Sounding board which plays a part of amplifier and which consists of a wood tablecloth (spruce or Cyprès) very fine (2,2 mm with acute up to 4,2 mm with serious) almost occupying all the surface of the instrument. This transmission is done via the rest, piece of wood hard (pear tree) in form of “S” lengthened, which is stuck on the Sounding board and on which are tightened the cords. The cavity of the case is used as resonator, it is closed downwards by the “bottom”.

The sounding board is often bored of a hearing, in its right angle, the circular opening is then decorated of a rivet washer or rosette worked in parchment (Italian harpsichords) or gilded tin (Flemish harpsichords and French): it carries the mark of the factor then. This hearing is not essential but opens also the sound and makes it possible to balance the hygroscopy, to avoid a coupling with the bottom.

In the Flemish and French harpsichords, the sounding board is generally decorated in a sumptuous way of floral reasons, insects, birds, etc, whereas the Italians and the English prefer the wood in the rough.

Registers

One of the characteristics of the harpsichord is to be able to make vibrate, of only one and even touches, several cords from which sonorities can be different, together or separately. This is allowed by the registers that the instrumentalist can engage, or not. This system is similar to that of the organ (but the number of possible registers hardly exceeds five). The use of the registers, or plays, makes it possible to vary the sound power, or stamps it.

In France the plays take the names of: principal play or big game of feather; unison or little game or virginal; octave or small octave; play of lute; play of buffalo.

In the Anglo-Saxon world, one indicates them by a number of feet, by analogy with the registers of organ emitting of the of the same sounds height, that is to say 16 feet, 8 feet (the rained usual one), 4 feet.

the virginal (virginal, muselaar, ottavino) has a row of cord, therefore a row, a play. (a second possible play in lute or arpichordum);
the harpsichord (clavicytherium) with a keyboard has two rows of cords: main thing-unison (or octave) more one lute which comes to touch one of the rows. This gives the following plays: the main thing, unison, lute. I.e. three plays out of two rows of cords;
the harpsichord receives a second keyboard as one adds a third rank of cords to him. The provision is: unison with the small keyboard, main thing-octave with the large keyboard. Moreover, one play of lute comes to touch one of the three rows; that gives the four plays: main thing-unison-octave-lute (can be added combinations like the full play, etc or a sautereau of buffalo which comes in double from the main thing).

The plays are ordered by levers, which are presented within reach to the top of the keyboard. Among Flemish the end of the registers crosses the cheek.

In the late instruments or end of the 18th century, the French used knuckles. The English harpsichords could comprise pedals, they are used with the changes of registers and the expressive mechanisms. The pedals were with the honor at the beginning of the redécouverte harpsichord towards 1900. Temptations of adaptation to the harpsichord of features of the piano gradually were abandoned as from the years 1950, to build harpsichords “with old”, resulting from the copy of the instruments of the great time (mainly).

In the Anglo-Saxon countries, one indicates the various sets of cords by a “length” of number of foot S. In fact it acts of the size of the play of Orgue emitting a of the same sound height. The most current size is of 8 ' (eight feet) for the principal play. The play of octave or four feet is twice less long. There were also sets of 2 ' and 16 ' (see curiosities).

The sound stamp varies according to the registers implemented: the position of the point of pinching compared to the sillet has an influence, considerable. Also plays the matter of sautereaux - feather of corbel, “skin of buffalo”, plastic (Delrin, Celcon) - or the presence of devices such as the “play of lute”, which partially chokes the sound thanks to small blocks of felt fixed against the cords, very close to the sillet.

The rest

The shape of the harpsichord comes directly from the plan of cords, except in the low registers. The rest has a form in ess (rest with hooks). Indeed, if all the cords followed the progression and were of the same matter, of the same section and subjected to the same tension, the points of hangs would be laid out according to a curve Exponentiel it and the instrument would become very long. To mitigate that, one varies the matter and the section of the cords of the acute (iron cords of small diameter) towards the serious (copper cords of larger diameter). The increase in the diameter is still much faster towards the low register, because it is there that the problem length becomes important; so towards the low registers, the rest is curved in opposite direction in form of Crosse. Among Italian, the rest can finish square or in several sections.

The lid

The harpsichord is protected by a Couvercle in one or two parts articulated with the spine which one laterally raises before playing. The lid is maintained in position opened by a simple wood rod not fixed at the instrument (the Béquille). It is intended to protect the sounding board from the Poussière and also the cords which can oxidize. In addition, a removable panel (the wicket), can come to lock up the keyboard box completely.

The case

The decoration of the case (of the trunk) also differs according to the traditions:

in Italy, one prefers the mouldings, sculptures, engravings, paintings gilded or not, with invaluable material incrustations (mother-of-pearl, bone, fine stones…); the keyboards are out of hard wood, such as the boxwood, tinted or not;
in Flanders, one uses wallpapers with arabesques and geometrical reasons for the interior, outside is often painted in a rather rough way, imitation of marble or ironwork; the interior of the lid is often decorated with wallpaper imitating moirures with a fabric, with Latin maxims.
in France, the harpsichord is an important component of the decoration of the noble and middle-class houses: it is often decorated with richness and luxury, instrument and lids being painted by large artists, with profusion of gildings; the keyboards are often out of ebony for the steps, plated bones for the pretenses.
in England, one privileges the cabinet work, oak with more or less invaluable wood plating and refined marquetry.
in Germany, the influences of the other countries are superimposed in general, in Hamburg the point of the instrument is round in the prolongation of the curved fish-plate taking the form of an S lengthened contrary to those of Saxony.

Agreement and temperament

Very generally today, the harpsichord is granted to the tuning fork says baroque with “” to 415 Hz (before 1800, date on which La3 was fixed at 440 Hz, there was no unified tuning fork. Varied “it” from one city to another, even from one organ to another in the same city). The modern tuning fork with 440 Hz is adopted only when the instrument must be integrated into a modern unit, in particular for the execution of made up works at the 20th century.

The difference between these two tuning forks corresponds roughly to a semitone: this is why much of instruments have a rudimentary device transposing instrument, which simply consists in being able to shift the keyboards of the width of a key: shifted towards the line, the key giving “it” comes to be placed under the sautereaux ones producing “B flat before” and only a very light réaccordage is necessary. One avoids by this process too appreciably modifying the tension of the cords, prejudicial with the stability of the agreement.

In a general way, nowadays, the harpsichord is not granted to the equal Tempérament except when it must form part of a modern unit. In fact thus mainly the temperaments of use during are used: temperaments mesotonic and unequal temperaments, Vallotti or other. This use became the rule in the interpretation known as authentic of the repertory baroque in solo.

The stability of the agreement of the harpsichord is less permanent than that of the piano and is particularly sensitive to the variations of the atmospheric conditions - in particular temperature and hygroscopy - to which reacts its timber structure. The harpsichord fears the climates prone to very strong temperature variations and of hygroscopy: relatively not very affected by the climates of Western Europe, it is it in a way more marked much by those which one finds in North America; in these areas, the great variations of hygroscopy can cause damage irremediable with the instruments of defective construction or badly placed. When an instrument must be installed for a concert in a foreign place (for example a church, often cold and wet), it is thus necessary there to place it several hours in advance and to rectify the agreement, in several phases and in particular with the approach in the concert. A light adaptation can even intervene during this one, during intervals and pauses.

The instrument having to be réaccordé rather frequently, it is of use which its owner carries out him even his tuning, much simpler to realize than that, with the equal temperament, of the piano, which remains the responsibility of a professional tuner.

The keyboard S

The diatonic or natural keys are called the steps. The chromatic keys (Sharp S or Flat S) are called pretended.

The French harpsichord has in theory keyboard S whose steps are black and the pretenses white (school S Parisian and Lyons). To increase the extent of the keyboards much, of harpsichords Flemish S was then modified (or plastered ) by the Parisian factor S, this characteristic rather often appears in these instruments.

In the other countries, and in particular the Italy and the south of current France, there was hardly rule, and all the possibilities were exploited: with more or less clear wood keys and precious substances such as the Mother-of-pearl or the scale were also used. It is the use of the Os (seldom of the Ivoire) which makes it possible to carry out white platings.

When the chromatic keys are white, it is only the upper part who receives a plating in bone. The massive keys are only very seldom, in the pretenses of English virginal, for example.

The steps, as for them, are decorated in end of key facing the instrumentalist with various ways: trefoil pediments carved in the mass or of parchment on bottom of fabric, arcades turned out of boxwood, a moulding, even of corrugated leather arcades…

Other shapes of the instrument

The family of the harpsichords includes/understands instruments of different forms and similar mechanism, often moreover small size that the harpsichord (NB: the virginal can be larger than a harpsichord):

the Italian virginal got the plan of the virginal rectangular or pentagonal, of the Virginal, the Muselaar , and of the ottavino . The biggest length is parallel to the keyboard. The cords are then across the key of the keyboard, from where a different sonority;
the curved virginal and the French virginal are tilted harpsichords (traverso) in the shape of wing of bird;
the Clavicytherium, which is a vertical harpsichord: the horizontal keyboard and the sautereaux are actuated by an articulated system of reference at right angles - one gains surface on the ground, in height the instrument on his feet can measure from two to three meters.

According to the time, as in the harpsichords, the extent of approximately four octaves is sufficient for the Musique of the Rebirth. The factors sought to increase the extent of the keyboards afterwards by “short” octaves or duplicated keys (known as pretended broken) correspondent with several distinct notes. These instruments are particularly adapted to the execution of works for which they were built during the Rebirth or at the 17th century, and particularly those of the Virginal English ists.

All these instruments have one keyboard and one row of cords (the majority of the old harpsichords had only one keyboard). Sometimes a play of Lute or Arpichordum came to be added. A mounting was not always essential: the instrument can be simply posed on a table or Tréteau X.

All these instruments with sautereaux of the family of the harpsichords coexisted while following the request for extension of the Tessiture. They are manufactured still today by the same craftsmen (Facteurs of harpsichords).

Curiosities and inventions

The Imagination of the factors gave rise to many extraordinary instruments, produced with few specimens of which sometimes, none remains:

Clavicymbalum of Henri Arnault de Zwolle about 1440. Arnaut proposes four diagrams of energization of the cord including one with struck cord, but he considers that the first, with sautereau, is the best;
Claviorganum (at the same time harpsichord and Organ);
“ Moeder in kind ” (Mother and child, Flandres, 17th century): unit made up of two virginals. Smallest (the child, virginal half with the octave) can line up in largest (the mother) or superimpose themselves on this one so as to couple their two keyboards.
Clavecin imbricated with a fascinating Muselaar places on the level of the curved fish-plate (Flandres, 17th century);
“ spinettone of teatro ” (Cristofori, Italy, 18th century): virginal resembling a harpsichord, with a broken curve carried out in two right parts, the keyboard is side to limit the obstruction in the orchestra pits. Have two registers: the main thing and octave;

the oval virginal (Bartolomeo Cristofori 1655-1731) has two registers of Unisson S intersected, four rests. The most serious cords sound in the center of the table;
“double virginal” (Cristofori, Italy, 18th century): with sets of intersected cords;
harpsichord “broken” in three parts which are folded up in a whole (France, Jean Marius, 1700 18th century);
harpsichord with shutters: Some devices were tested in England, at the 18th century, to vary the Volume its: shutters with progressive opening. These tests hardly had success;
“opposite” (Germany, 18th century): a harpsichord and a pianoforte face, overlapping in the same enormous piece of furniture;
sixteen feet: The provision known as “of Bach” with sets of sixteen, eight and four feet is in fact an invention of the beginning of the 20th century, because the authentic instruments of the period baroque which present it are excessively rare;
Harpsichord with pedal (there does not exist complete old specimen);
evolutionary harpsichord: harpsichord with a keyboard which is transformed into two keyboards (Rouaud, 1970);
transformable Clavicytherium: the same one can become a horizontal harpsichord (Rouaud, 1980);
Lute-harpsichord, equipped with the cords in bowel.

Instruments inspired by the harpsichord

the “ electric harpsichord ” (France, 1759): conceived by Jean-Baptiste of Borders, this instrument uses the static electricity to strike small bells using small metal parts;
“ Geigenwerk ” (Germany, 17th century): the cords are not scraped, but are not rubbed by Roue S, rotary kinds of Archet S cylindrical actuated by a Pédale, similar to that of the Vielle to wheel;

Mechanism and touch of the harpsichord

The principal element of the mechanism of the harpsichord is a plate of hard Bois called sautereau which is presented vertically to the top of the part postpones (hidden) of the key.

It is maintained in this position by the registers laid out horizontally and parallel to (X) the keyboard (S). The registers are generally two per row the sautereaux one: that of bottom is fixed; that the top is mobile and can move few millimetres laterally, making it possible to put in action or not the row of sautereaux corresponding. In the simplest instruments, having only one row of sautereaux, there is no mobile register (single play the sautereaux one being always active). The registers are bored rectangular openings, possibly furnished with a sheepskin, with through which the sautereau can slide freely, but with a very adjusted play, upwards.

The key constitutes a lever: when the harpsichordist supports on his end, the other end is raised and makes assemble the sautereau provided with a nozzle which “will grip” the corresponding cord.

At the higher end of the sautereau a small hard wood strip is articulated in an elastic way (arises in Soie of Sanglier) on the sautereau and provided with the “Bec” or “Plectre” (in feather of corbel, in plastic Cuir or ) which raises the cord. When the sautereau continues to rise, the nozzle Courbe gradually then is ended up “releasing” the cord thus put in Vibration.

When one ceases pressing on the key, the tail of the key returns on the frame of the keyboard; the sautereau falls down and the nozzle passes by again under the cord, but without noise (or almost) thanks to the design of the Articulation of the strip and the sautereau: the strip is retracted backwards, and returns then in its place thanks to the Ressort. The sautereau goes down again in low position, the wool cloth choke comes to rest on the cord to put an end to the sound.

When the instrument has two keyboards, two different devices make it possible to actuate same the sautereau starting from the two keyboards:

the coupling with Drawer (device with the French E): while making slightly slip the large keyboard backwards, from the vertical pins (tooth of coupling) placed at the end of the lower keys come to be placed under the higher keys; when an unspecified lower key is supported, the higher key also drops (but not the reverse);
the English coupling: while making slightly slip the small keyboard backwards, the tail of the key is placed in the notch of the sautereau in “Pied-de-biche” (device English known as “ dog leg ”). The sautereaux ones are notched, and can be raised, either by the lower key, or by the higher key.

These two devices, from which the musical utility is different, never appear simultaneously on the same instrument.

The mechanism of the harpsichord authorizes variations of stamp and intensity by the negotiation in the production of the sound of the absence of a “stuck” play: other possibilities are in the register, the combination or the coupling of registers. This instrument is particularly adapted to the execution of the Baroque music (in Soliste, Concertiste or element of the Continuo).

The harpsichord lays out, like the Orgue, of “registers” (one to four pairs, even more). To each register corresponds a play the sautereaux one, a set of cords which can produce different sounds and possibly a distinct keyboard. Each register can be thorough or drawn, in order to put in service or except service the set of sautereaux correspondents. This provision returns the harpsichord very adapted to the music “baroque” or the counterpoint is particularly important (each hand can play on a different keyboard its own independent melody lines.

There are not as many plays as of rows of cords:

a row of cords can be disputed by two sautereaux: the main thing and buffalo. Or by a sautereau and the lute;
a row of cord in unison can be played by each keyboard;
the keyboard high always plays the unison or a play with lute;
the keyboard of bottom plays the principal game or the play of octave or the two units and one can add unison to it;
one plays all the games by the large keyboard, it is the “full play”.

All these combinations give to the instruments most complex one large variety of stamps. It is their existence which involved the development, at the 18th century) of the devices intended for the “automatic” changes of the French factors (by knuckles ) and English by ( pedals ).

With regard to the touch, it is very different from that of the piano since the force brought in support of the key does not have practically any influence on the returned sound. The mechanism is very light and reactive; the sound is obtained on the surface of the keyboard and not at the bottom; the hand is motionless and, by an effect of cam the finger licks the keyboard and negotiates the intensity and the color of the sound while being folded up towards the palm.

History

First instruments

The origin of the harpsichord goes back to the Moyen-âge: it is an evolution of the Psaltérion to which a keyboard was adapted. It is at the 14th century which one finds the oldest documents but it is quite possible that the principle was invented before. This century saw many progress in the technique of the Horlogerie as in other mechanical fields and this makes plausible a settling, at that time, mechanism which distinguishes the harpsichord from the Psaltérion. A Latin manuscript of Arnaut de Zwolle, going back approximately to 1440, includes detailed diagrams of the Clavisimbalum as well as four devices of excitation of the cords pinches, including one with struck cords. Arnaut specifies that the first mechanics is the best: the first Sautereau X.

The instrument is perhaps originating in Italy or of Burgundy, whether these two centers of invoice were in communication or developed independently. Italy will be always, and by far the seat of the most important production, with a very typified invoice which remains the same one during three centuries.

Always it is that the oldest harpsichord which is preserved is of Italian invoice; it is gone back to 1521 and it is preserved at London. The Royal Academy off Music has a curious vertical instrument, a Clavicytherium, which must be former, but the mechanism is missing. Let us note that they are preceded by a virginal going back to 1493 exposed to the museum from Perugia. The other instruments going back to this high time, first half of XVI^e century, are also of Italian invoice. However, they do not give us any information on the genesis of the instrument: in a surprising way, the invoice in is almost accomplished and one can thus make only assumptions on the former evolution of this one, the more so as the written documents miss almost completely until the Encyclopédie of Diderot.

The Italian factors built very light instruments, of which the structure evokes the Lutherie, provided with only one keyboard and the cords of moderate tension. This structure will perdura during several centuries without notorious modification. The Italian instruments have a pleasant sound but which misses power: they became the instrument of accompaniment par excellence.

A decisive change in the invoice took place with Antwerp about the years 1580, especially on the impulse of the factor Hans Ruckers and its heirs, among whom Ioannes Couchet. The Flemish factors built instruments much more solid than Italian. Their instruments had longer cords, under stronger tension, of diameter gradually increased towards low - from where a squater form, with two plays of eight and four feet (or twice eight feet) - thicker case and a very thin sounding board which made a sound powerful and noble. There were sometimes two keyboards, generally transposing instruments (with interval of quad) and which could not be coupled. Later, the second keyboard was also used to produce modifications of sonority. There the Flemish model was used as a basis for the development of the invoice in the other countries of Western Europe (primarily France, England, Germany) even if a former tradition could exist.

The golden age ()

It is large the time harpsichord: factors and musicians carry the instrument St his repertory to their apogee. The harpsichord becomes an instrument of prestige and a piece of furniture of pageantry which decorates private mansions, castles and palate, among easy middle-class men, the members of the nobility and the royal families. It takes part in the rich person musical life who animates them and the children of the privileged classes learn how to play about it near the best professors.

One in general distinguishes five national “schools” for the invoice from this time:

# Italy (principal centers: Venice, Milan, Florence, Rome, Naples…) ;

# Flanders S (Antwerp with the most famous family of factors: the Ruckers and Couchet, then Moermans, Dulcken…) ;

# France (mainly with Paris: the Denis, Strainer, Taskin, Hemsch…) ;

# England, primarily with London (Shudi, Kirckman…) ;

# Germany with Hamburg (Fleischer, Hass, Zell), Berlin (Mietke), Dresden (Gräbner)…

There were little harpsichords apart from these areas. Some Iberian instruments (Portuguese, Spanish) remain, which indicate a strong Italian influence, but the production was always very reduced.

The five principal national schools are well characterized, even if many alternatives exist, and if the most talented factors always showed of imagination and ingeniousness. The characters indicated hereafter describe only general tendencies, which are prone to many exceptions.

The Italian invoice

, The Italy was the most important center of manufacture of harpsichords of all the Europe. The instruments are very characterized by it; their typified sound and their attack specify particularly intend them for the realization of the Basse continues. Moreover, relatively few Italian artists were devoted exclusively to this instrument, in proportion of the number of Italian musicians for all the period Baroque.

The Italian harpsichord most typical has a formed extremely light case of thin walls in Cyprès, whose construction evokes the Lutherie. This fragile instrument is not decorated; it is contained in a solid external case, of utility nature in the beginning, and which will take during times an increasingly important decorative function. The later instruments often have thicker walls, but they endeavor to preserve the same appearance of structure. The Sounding board is cut out with the form of the bottom, that the fish-plates surround, and from which the instrument is built. Very generally, there is one keyboard, actuating two plays with the Unisson, the register S not being mobile; they are sometimes laid out obliquely (not parallels with the keyboard) what requires a manufacturing process very sophisticated. This keyboard is prominent (in console) compared to the case. The measurement of the cords (in Brass) is short, and the progression their lengths towards the low register without variation of diameter gives to the instrument a very lengthened form, with a fish-plate curves very curved. It is in the most serious part that the diameters of cords are increased, which is accompanied by a point almost perpendicular to the spine. In this part, the rests are not curved, but angular.

With regard to decoration:

the case (or the external case) gives place to the largest decorative variety, misant mainly on the matters and the reliefs. The very worked mouldings take part in the solidity of the instrument. Most sumptuous implement the Marqueterie, the sculptures, gilding, the precious substance incrustations, such as Nacre engraved, scale, bones, fine stones, pearls;
the Sounding board is of wood in the rough; it is decorated of a rosette of cut out parchment, in several layers, according to very complex geometrical reasons sometimes;
the Piètement, often made up of three bases column more or less worked is sometimes a work of art to him only, sometimes of a exubérance époustouflante.

The Flemish invoice

The Flemish invoice represents the pole opposed to the Italian invoice. The other national schools (France, Germany and England) are attached to its tradition with local variations. The greatest number of preserved instruments comes from the family Ruckers, whose production represents the prototype of this school.

Contrary to the Italian harpsichord, the Flemish harpsichord is a solid instrument, with the relatively thick walls; the rigidity of the case is ensured, moreover, by internal reinforcements laid out in range, more or less perpendicular to the curved fish-plate. Flemish employs wood such as the lime or the poplar. The fish-plates are posed on the bottom (thus the sounding board does not have same surface that this last) but it is probable that in fact, one fixed the bottom (by joining and macadam binding), once the instrument finished, on the lower section of the fish-plates.

Generally, there is one keyboard, actuating two plays in the unison or a principal play and one with octave, with mobile registers laid out the keyboard parallel to. This keyboard is returning in the case. The measurement of the cords (out of steel or brass) is rather long, and the progression their lengths towards the low register is accompanied by a variation of diameter which makes it possible to have a rather compact instrument, with a fish-plate curves not very curved. The rests are curved in form of “S”. The instruments with two keyboards in country of origin are transposing instruments (shifted keyboards, one in C, the other in F, and especially without coupling).

The sounding board has a variable thickness on the edges, and a rather rigid stopping.

The mounting is extrapolation simple trestles: four feet in turned and waxed oak, connected by horizontal cross-pieces or a balustrade. It was sometimes surprisingly high, because one could play upright.

With regard to decoration:

the case is painted in order to imitate the marble or of the reasons for ironwork. There are no mouldings, except those taken in the mass in top of the fish-plates, nor of reasons in relief. The interior is furnished with decorative papers printed with arabesques, stylized dolphins, etc the lid, in a part or two articulated parts, often carries a Latin maxim;
the sounding board is decorated with stereotyped floral reasons, and a gilded tin rosette carrying the mark and the initial ones of the factor.

The French invoice

There exists a French tradition of the invoice former to the period of extraordinary passion for the Flemish harpsichords which made it evolve/move in a decisive way. This old manner is besides much nearer to Flemish than of Italian. The French production is almost entirely concentrated with Paris, which counted more than one hundred factors at the 18th century - one can quote the Denis families, Bellot, Jean-Antoine Vaudry. Some others work with Lyon (Gilbert Desruisseaux, later Pierre Donzelague), Toulouse (Vincent Thibaut) - the instruments going back to this period are excessively rare and none goes up before 1648.

The typical French harpsichord of the 18th century is a large instrument with two keyboards of which the structure points out much that of Flemish. Very often, these instruments result from the operation of rough-casting which consists in transforming an old instrument to put it at the last style. It is a question either of associating a second keyboard or of adding a coupling, or to increase the extent of the keyboard, or to increase the number of the registers, and if required to add devices of fast change.

The great Parisian factors of the 18th century were made a speciality of the rough-casting of Flemish harpsichords, particularly of the Rückers. Indeed this signature was synonymous with exceptional sound quality and exorbitant price: it gave place also to counterfeits.

the rough-casting could take several forms:

* small rough-casting: extension of the number of keys of the keyboard, transformation of a keyboard transposing instrument into harmonic Keyboard, without modifying the case;

* great rough-casting: widening of the case and the Sounding board, addition of a second keyboard, etc the great rough-casting was a work of expert.

The decoration, which is harmonized with the remainder of furniture, is sumptuous, with gildings, sculptures, paintings; the sounding board has a refined floral decoration. The interior of the lid is often a table for which one calls upon the best painters.

The search for expressivity gave place, at the 18th century, innovations such as the knuckles for fast change of the registers, the Plectre in skin of Buffle…

In spite of the important production, there remains relatively little of French instruments of the great time, because of the consecutive destruction to the Revolution. There does not exist any more, for certain factors, that only one instrument, and many are those of which all the production disappeared.

Great names of the French invoice:

the Strainer;
Jean-Henri Hemsch;
Pascal-Joseph Taskin.

. Being given their obstruction, they belong to some rare instruments that the player of Classical music does not have always to bring with him when it takes part in a Concert, as well as the pianos, the Orgue S or sometimes the Timbale S: the harpsichords are often provided by the institution which receives.

At present, in spite of the unit price, the manufacture of harpsichords remains a confidential activity, which is not organized in a true economic sector . Thus, for example, there did not exist any production Industrie in France in 2004, 2005 or 2006. However, it is estimated that the invoice of the instrument can offer appropriatenesses niche prestigious and carrying images for the know-how of the country.

Moreover, the manufacture of the harpsichords can have strong implications socioenvironnementales, in particular when Ivoire is used. Thus certain factors consider it important to make recalls as for the prohibition of the Commerce of this material in their advertizing documentation .

Where to see historical harpsichords?

in France

Many instruments with:

Paris, Museum of the music;
Paris, Grévin Museum;
Versailles, Castle.

Beautiful instruments isolated with:

Amiens, Hotel of Berny (Ioannes Ruckers, 1612);
Chartres, Museum of the Art schools (the Father Bellot 1729);
Colmar, Museum of Unterlinden (Ruckers, 1624);
Lyon, Museum of Decorative Arts (Donzelague, 1716);
Saint-Quentin, Museum Antoine Lécuyer (Benoist Stehlin, 1750);
Thoiry, Castle of Thoiry (Nicolas+François Strainer, 1733).

in Belgium

Antwerp, Vleeshuis museum.
Brussels, Museum of the Musical instruments.

in Great Britain

Many instruments with:

Edinburgh, St Cecilia' S Hall Museum off Instruments See the site;
Goudhurst Tunbridge Wells (Kent), Finchcocks Living room Music Museum ;
Guildford, Cobbe collection At Hatchlands Park (Andreas Ruckers, 1636);
London, Victoria & Albert Museum (Vaudry, 1681, Baffo 1576…).

in the United States

Many instruments with:

Vermilion (South Dakota), National Music Museum : Superb site with texts, photographs, illustrations sound

in Germany

Berlin, Musikinstrumenten-Museum (SMB) close to the Philharmonic society

Quotations

“The harpsichord has in its species a brilliance and a clearness which one hardly finds in the other instruments. It is perfect as for its extent by him even… This instrument has its properties as the violin has to them his. If the harpsichord does not swell the sounds, if the beats redoubled on the same note are not appropriate to him extremely, it has other advantages which are: the " précision" , the " netteté" , the " brillant" and l'" étendue" ”. ( Art of touching the harpsichord , François Couperin, 1717)

“These verses are rather good… for a Piano-forte which is only one instrument of ironmonger compared to the harpsichord ” (correspondence with the marchioness Mrs. of Deffand, Voltaire, December 8th 1774)

Music of harpsichord

The history of the made up music for the harpsichord is written on two quite distinct pages, the practice of this instrument having ceased during all the 19th century: the made up music for the piano for this period cannot be interpreted suitably on the harpsichord because it put on musical characteristics suitable for the Piano, in particular the expressive possibilities and the sound power. There is thus a discontinuity between the first period (Rebirth and baroque, approximately two centuries) and the second (contemporary period) during which the harpsichord found the favor of certain type-setters.

During the Rebirth, the fingering charts relate to indifferently the organ and the harpsichord and this, in all Western Europe in spite of the opposite characters of the two instruments. They are only gradually that a literature suitable emerges for each one of them, at periods which differ from country to country.

Each nation which takes part in the rise of the repertory brings a component to a European synthesis which will succeed, to the XVIIIe century, with an apogee preceding by little the fast disappearance of the instrument, supplanted by the piano.

Technical glossary

The case or cases

; The cheek: small lateral side (flat) on the right of the case; ; the spine: large lateral side (flat) on the left of the case; ; the curved fish-plate: concave part of the case, on the right between cheek and point; ; the tail or points: wall located at the end, connecting the curved fish-plate and the spine; ; the surrounding: interior edge of the walls of the case around the sounding board; ; the throat (or pediment): vertical board (removable or fixes) which comes plumb with the keyboard on the song with the diagrid. In the interstice between the keyboard comes to set the knife on the throat. The name of the factor can be mentioned as much on the knife as the throat; ; the knife or bars name: plinth above the keyboard, on which the name of the factor is registered. By withdrawing it, one can extract the keyboard from the instrument, for maintenance; ; the diagrid: beam of sawn timber parallel with the keyboard or are fixed the ankles of agreement and the sillets; ; the pit: space between the diagrid and the sounding board, allowing sautereaux to reach the cords. It shelters the registers; ; the against-diagrid and mass: two rather massive pieces of wood opposed to the diagrid on other side of the pit; ; the roll: piece of wood lengthened placed under the sounding board, fixed at the case, marrying the shape of the rest and intended has to receive the points of hangs play of octave. It delimits two vibratory zones; ; bottom: wood panel which closes the underbody; ; the lid: wood panel - in only one articulated part or two parts - which recovers the top of the instrument and protects the sounding board and the cords. Is raised it laterally to play; ; the crutch: wood rod which maintains the lid open; ; the wicket: removable vertical panel allowing to dissimulate the keyboard when the instrument is closed; ; the mounting: piece of furniture of cabinet work on which the harpsichord is posed. The feet can be carved, turned, etc and their number vary (from four to seven or more). The possible knuckles fit in the mounting. It can be a kind of trestle.

The mechanism

It comprises keyboard, registers, sautereaux, capital: ; the keyboard: together of bars (keys) out of wooden joined together on a framework (frame). Each key swivels like a simple lever on one of the two bars of the frame (beam). The second bar names bar of rest (tuning fork, comb) because it guides the keys and maintains their spacing. One can associate a bar of stop to him called bars depression; ; steps: diatonic keys; ; pretenses: chromatic keys (sharps and flat); ; the arcade: worked part coming out of end grained timber from the key (walk); it can be turned or trefoil, profiled; ; the sautereau: tongue of thin and lengthened wood (12 cm) ensuring the pinching of a cord using its nozzle. It is hung with the cord by the choke, its foot is only with one millimetre of the keyboard; ; the strip: small piece of wood articulated on the sautereau and armed with the nozzle - generally in houx; ; the nozzle or plectre: element in feather of corbel, leather or plastic (Delrin or Celcon) which grip the cord; ; the register: part of small bored section of cells (mortises) being used to guide the sautereaux ones in top and bottom. These registers cross all the instrument of the low register to acute and are placed in the pit. There are as many mortises as the sautereaux one. They can be furnished with skin (sheepskin) to avoid the noise; ; the point of swinging: metal stem (diameter 2 mm) which maintains the key in place all while enabling him to swivel to raise the sautereau; ; the capital: transverse piece of wood furnished with wool edge, placed above the rows the sautereaux one and which limits the vertical race of the sautereau and the keyboard. It can exist also a bar of stop to the keyboard called bars depression; ; knuckles: left pommels fixed in the mounting under the keyboard; six on the French harpsichords of the 18th century, they are used to operate the registers using the knee by leaving the freehands for the play; ; the Crowbar: sautereau notched fulfilling the function of tooth of coupling; ; the main thing or big game: game more coloured and sound played by the large lower keyboard; ; unison: plays allowing to play a chorus of cord with the principal play as in the lute. (By the coupling of the keyboards), is only played by the small keyboard; ; the octave: play touched by the large keyboard, played mixes some with the other plays.

Sound elements

; The cord S: simple sons out of iron, brass, copper, bronzes. They never “are spun” - i.e. weighed down by rolling up of a smaller wire around the principal wire as for the piano; ; the ringlet: buckle to fix the cord at the point of hangs. At the other end is ankle agreement; ; the Sounding board: very thin wood panel in tension which like a membrane, amplifies its product by the vibration of the cords via the rest. The thickness is variable, about two to four millimetres; ; the stopping: several wood bars stuck on the hidden side of the sounding board are intended to receive the load of the plan of cords and to control the deformations of the sounding board. Their reasoned provision is the signature of the factor. N.B a sounding board of harpsichord is not plane once the cords put in tension; ; the rosette or rivet washer: decorative veiling the opening, generally circular element (hearing), practiced in certain sounding boards. In parchment, wood, gilded tin, etc; it is often the mark of the factor and can carry its initial ; the sillet: profiled out of wood (to drown, beech, pear tree) supporting and stopping the cords on the diagrid. It does not vibrate; ; the rest: profiled out of hard wood supporting the cords on the sounding board, generally finished by a stick. The rest vibrates by the transverse action of the points and tailstocks which are planted there; ; the rope-maker: long shaped piece of wood which skirts the curved fish-plate, and receives the points of hangs. Its during is the diagrid. Its height makes it possible to support or raise the table by the cords; ; the stick or hook: termination of the rest towards the low registers. The stick known as is raised as it is not stuck on the table. The rest of octave does not have a stick; ; the point of hangs: point on which one of the ends of the cord is fixed, the ringlet. These points are planted in the rope-maker skirting the curved fish-plate and the point; ; the tail-stock: point planted on the side of the rest in the tenor part/low; it makes it possible to request by torsion the rest while deviating the direction of the cord. It is an essential component for the load (i.e. the setting in tension) of the rope; ; ankle of agreement: ankle metal with the diagrid, on which one of the ends of the cord is fixed. At old the ankles neither are bored nor threaded: ankle is conical with emery. It is by ankle of agreement, which one turns using a key , that one regulates the tension of the cord and thus the height of the sound that it emits. The ankles of historical harpsichord have a rectangular print; ; points of sillet and rest: small points without head which are used to fix the position of the cords at their passage on the sillet or the rest and to request the table.

Random links:

Haribo | Conrad Stoltz | Bab Jedid | Tekhelet | Rača (Bajina Bašta)