Grammar of the Sanskrit

The grammar of the Sanskrit describes the sounds of the language sanskrite ( Phonétique ), the formation of the words of this language ( morphology ), and the composition of these words in sentences ( Syntaxe ). Its study makes it possible to better include/understand the quotations in Sanskrit which the articles relating to the Indian culture present, and prepares the reading of a vast literature written in Sanskrit. An overflight of the evolution of the language which solidified in the traditional Sanskrit, the discovery of its written forms, and a homage paid to the grammairiens which transmitted this knowledge of antiquity to our days, prepare the talk of this Grammaire . At the end of the article of new doors entrebâillent, which direct the spirit curious towards lexicology about the Sanskrit, its stylistics, its prosody, a bibliography, and so much of other richnesses ready to open a prying intelligence.

Warning : The words Sanskrits will be quoted in the text in Italic characters and in the form of the topic, the absence of ending being marked by an indent (example: deva -). The subscribed diacritics of the Genevese transliteration will be transcribed by an adscript point on the right of the letter which it modifies (example: as.t.a -). N surmounted of a diacritic point in Genevese transliteration will appear in the form (example: an' ga -). The S surmounted of an acute accent in the Genevese transliteration will appear in the form (example: ruti -). Although the Sanskrit does not use capital letters, initial proper names will be transcribed in capital (example: Patañjali -). This transcription " dactylographique" makes the Sanskrits terms directly readable. For the purists, these words will be also noted in writing devanâgarî -, followed by their illegible Genevese transliteration without the use of the page of assistance Unicode (because it presents to the screen empty squares, question marks, etc).

Sanskrit (or Sanskrit)

To follow the evolution of the language of the proto-hittite until the contemporary Hindi, to turn then to the writings of the Sanskrit and its transcriptions, to remember finally some old and modern scholars , make it possible to approach with fruit the grammar of the Sanskrit.

Evolution of the language

Paléo-Indian: hittite with the védique one

A language proto-indo hittite , spoken since highest antiquity on the southernmost shores about the sea about Aral, emigrated then in three directions: towards the empire Hourrite of the Mitanni in the north of current Syria (which used already, with, some words proto-Sanskrits always of use in India of today: such names of deva - Indra - and Nâsatya -, among other examples), towards the Bactriane then (current Afghanistan), and towards the Pendjab finally, ground of the five rivers (this pañjâb- that do divide themselves India and Pakistan since 1947) where old civilization (perhaps of origin sumérienne?) from Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa had disappeared since many centuries already.

See also: Age of the valley of Indus (article of quality).

The evolution of this Indo-European language between Iran and India prepared the advent of an Indo-Iranian from which were born the Avestique (language of the Persian Avesta) and the védique one (language of the Veda - Aryan). These purely oral languages conveyed two field crops whose crowned texts started to be written from

This language indo- Aryen , which evolved to the hieratic Védique (which tended to solidify it), however remained a living language, diffused with the wire of the time by vedic grammatically different which will lead to the epic language, that from the Mahabharata ( mahâbhârata -) and Ramayana ( râmâyan.a -), from Puranas ( purân.a -), and from the various vernacular languages known as Prakrit S ( prâkr.ta -) sullied with nonIndo-European expressions (thus the word ulûka - owl " hululant" is not it Aryan origin). From these prakrits will be born the ardhamagadi ( ardhamâgadhî -) from the jainists, the Pali ( pâlî -) of the Buddhists, and the various dialects of the means-Indian which will lead to the speeches of modern India, the such goujarati ( Gujarâtî -), the Hindi ( Hindi -), the Bengali ( ban' gâlî -), etc

Note:: the names of languages, French masculines, are female in Sanskrit. the ardhamagadhi means literally: the half ( ardha -) magadhienne ( mâgadhî - spoken with the magadha -), or better known as the language " partially magadhienne".

Méso-Indian: the preclassical one with the traditional one

With: the rise of the Buddhism and the Jaïnisme, the proliferation of the prakrits ( prâkr.ta -), and the vernacular evolution of Indo-Aryan seemed a serious threat with the Brahmane S charged to transmit a pure Védique ritual.

With: Panini ( pân.ini -) writes the first normative grammar of a preclassical Sanskrit in Eight Chapters ( as.ta- adhyâyin -) charged to protect the liturgy from the profane speeches which evolved/moved out of the crowned surface of the sacrifices vedic ( yajña -).

With: Patanjali ( patañjali -), grammairien homonymous of the famous yogi ( yogin -), comments on the Eight Chapters of Panini ( pân.ini -). This dedicated reformer made work of purist demanding and critical. After him, its language will be described as sam.skr.ta - ( lingua confecta , perfect, immutable). So much " parfaite" that the Buddhists will translate their canonical texts of faded ( pâlî -) into Sanskrit.

From our era: Ramayana ( râmâyan.a -), certain Puranas ( purân.a -), and other old oral traditions were also translated, then written, according to the guns of the grammatical standard " définitive".

Golden age of dynasty Gupta ( gupta -, secret), with 5th century, délectait with listening of work of poet Kalidasa ( kâlidâsa -) dating from century previous, 4th, which bequeathed us dramatic plays such Shakuntala ( âkuntalâ -, mother of bharata - éponyme of the Indian people, the bhârata -) and Raghuvamça ( raghu-vams' has -) the line of raghu - in which was born the râghava - will râmcandra -, Rāma the Lunar one, seventh misadventure ( will avatâra -) of Vishnou ( vis.n.u -).

Néo-Indian: Sanskrit with the contemporary Indian languages

Two foreign warriors shook the Indian culture, the hun Toramana, and Afghan Mahmud de Ghazni.

In 510 Toramana demolishes the last Gupta, India bursts in a mosaic of small kingdoms. In the southernmost states the cultures Dravidien born flower chaloukya ( calukya -), Pallava and Chola ( cola -). In north the grammar of the Sanskrit solidifies, the language is confined with narrow circles of Pandit S scholars ( pan.d.ita -) which forsake the verbal richness of the old language for the use of nominal sentences increasingly complex. The sects hindouists perpetuate the use of the Sanskrit by using it as philosophical and religious language, as did it Shankara ( an' will kara -) at the 8th century, for example.

The year 1000 mark another historical turning point. Mahmud kills from Ghazni (to Afghanistan), keep silent the seventy thousand Hindus " idolâtres" who defended the temple of Shiva ( iva - the Beneficial one) in Somnath with the Goujerat, then carries out seventeen raids in the north of India. The Islamic culture will not leave any more the sub-continent until our days, and the hindouism will emigrate towards the south, without forsaking the use of the Sanskrit in spite of the promptness of the indigenous languages the such Oriya of Orissa, the Télougou ( telugu -) of Karnataka, the Tamoul ( Tamilian -) of the Tamil Nadu, and so much of others still. Thus Ramanuja ( anuja - " small frère" of râma - the Amusing one), which lived about 1137 in Shrirangam ( rîrangam ) on the river Cauvery ( kâveri -) out of ground tamoule, at that time wrote in Sanskrit its comments of the Brahmasoutra S ( will sûtra - aphorisms, about the Brahman -).

In 1526 Babur Shah inaugurates the reign of the Moghol S in Delhi. Its grandson Akbar, lit despot, protected arts and the letters. The pandits ( pan.d.ita -) Hindu always used the Sanskrit but the prakrits ( prâkr.ta -) evolved/moved and little by little was born the language Hindustani ( hindustânî -), that the partition of the sub-continent between India and Pakistan, into 1947 , divided between the Ourdou ( Urdu -) and the Hindi ( Hindi -). Religious and political reasons led to " désanscritiser" the Urdu Moslem, and with " sanscritiser" the Hindi Hindouiste. Today the language sanskrite is vernacular for 6.000 speakers only, but it flowers in the lexicon of the Hindi. And the literary Sanskrit, prerogative of any cultivated Indian, is taught in many Indian or foreign universities.

See also: Sanskrit , section History: this article indicates some notorious linguistic differences between the states vedic and traditional of the Sanskrit.

Writings of the Sanskrit (C-Ws communication)

Indian penmanships

The writing Cunéiforme is erased in the Middle East, towards, in front of the writing and the numeration araméennes which are diffused towards the rising sun until in the immense valley of Indus. At that time sixteen kingdoms amalgamate, in Eastern India, four powerful states of which hegemonic the Magadha.

In 364 av. J. - C. the dynasty of Nandas is essential ( nanda - joy of having a son), when in India a cursive writing derived from the araméenne appears, the kharos.tî - what uses then the Maurya S ( maurya -), of Chandragupta old ( candragupta -) which reverses Nandas in 321 av. J. - C. until the reign of powerful the Açoka ( as' oka - without concern), died in 232 av. J. - C., during which is born the first really Indian writing, the brâhmî -, used jointly with the kharos.tî - to engrave the edicts of the large monarch on stone steles.

Among the writings used at the time (supposed) of Patanjali ( patañjali -) with, the brâhmî -, letters and figures, was used for Buddhist inscriptions in the caves of Ghat Chick, which show also a new writing, derived from the brâhmî -. One century later, the same derived writing is engraved in the caves of Nasik-on-Godavari, which uses the figures from 1 to 9 not yet governed by a numeral rule of position. (Note: Was Nana Ghat the place of various ( nânâ -) murders ( ghâta -)? As for Nasik, Ramayana tells that Lakshmana ( laks.man.a -), brother of Rowed, cut there the nose ( nâsika -) of the sister of the demon Ravana ( râvan.a -); the abundance of vocabulary on these pages familiarizes the spirit with words which then the section of morphology will analyze).

At the next millenium, the dynasty Gupta reaches its apogee under Candragupta II (375-413), ( will candra - the Lunar one, gupta - hidden). Under its reign a writing gupta flowers - whose derive the successive writings from the Central Asia and India of north. Inscriptions in Pallava ( pallava - a flower, a branch), chaloukya ( câlukya -), and vallabhi ( vallabhî - beloved) date from the same time, in C-Ws communication from which will derive the southernmost written forms. In 458 appears, in a cosmology jainist written in Sanskrit (the lokavibhâga -, vibhâga - division, loka - world), the numeral rule of position according to base 10, taken again by the astronomers Âryabhata - in 510 and Varâhamihirya - in 575 ( varâha - wild boar, mihiriya - wire of the sun; Persians, Greeks and Romans influenced this large scientist). From 598 date the oldest inscription sanskrite of… Kampuchea (a date: year 520 of the era aka - Scythian).

brâhmî - thus derive the many penmanships used in India so far. One of them, sponsored by the British during their Empire of the Indies, is the devanâgarî - which, slightly transformed, makes it possible to write the language Hindi - contemporary. The Sanskrit can be written in devanâgarî -, preferred by the University, but also in any other Indian writing, tamoul ( Tamilian -), télougou ( telugu -), Malayalam ( malayâlam - southernmost of all), etc

the Chronology of the world history , collection Stopwatches, makes it possible to locate remarkable men and Indian facts among the significant events of the universal history (see bibliography below).

the universal History of the figures of Georges Ifrah (born in 1947) described, in addition to the numbering systems of the first men to our days, the history of the figures and the letters , of which that of the Indian writings (see bibliography below).

See also: Sanskrit (article of quality), an example of these penmanships is given in the section: Writings of the Sanskrit.

Each consonant character of the devanâgarî - note a half-syllable: a consonant followed by the neutral vowel /a/. Example: to see K decides KA . This writing (as the brâhmî - from which it derives) is half-syllabic, and the alphabet of its characters, which contains also vowels, is known as half-spelling-book.

Here the notation of the characters :

(a TABLE to be supplemented in penmanship devanâgarî - will follow here…)

See also: Devanagari (article of quality).

The orthographical signs traditionally used, but not retained in the alphabet are: visarga - () will anusvâra - () anunâsika - () avagraha - () virâma - () and 10 Indian figures (). The use of these signs will be explained in the phonetic section hereafter.

The punctuation marks are: the dan.d.a- | (minim rest bars), and the double dan.d.a- || (double bar of pause).

The Chrestomathie sanskrite of Nadine Stchoupak makes it possible to exert the reading of the nâgarî - old. The news of Kris.n.a Baldev Vaid: History of rebirths in bilingual edition Hindi-French, makes it possible to read the nâgarî - modern. (These books are quoted in the bibliography at the end of the article).

Genevese transliteration

The difficulty in printing the characters nâgarî - in Occident to the European scholars the use of various transcriptions using imposed the characteristics of their source languages. At the 19th century flowered of the German, English, French transcriptions… French translation of the r.gveda - by Alexandre Langlois (1788 - 1854), republished in 1872 , offers a relevant example of this diversity (see bibliography at the end of the article).

The 10th Congress of the Orientalists, at this meeting in Geneva in 1894 , codified a transliteration of the writing devanâgarî - which since then makes authority for the didactic works published by the universities. This transliteration uses characters borrowed from the Latin alphabet, and the following diacritics: small circle (°) and not (.) subscribed, acute accent (´) and tilde (~).

1. Here the table of the characters of the alphabet ( aks.arasamâmnâya -) classified according to the traditional order used by the dictionaries, in typing transcription :

has â I I U U (R.) (rr.) (L.)
E have O with the
the visarga - (h.) and the will anusvâra - (Mr.) appear in the alphabetical order before the K .
K KH G gh ()
C CH J jh ñ
(T.) (HT.) (D.) (dh.) (N.)
T HT D dh N
p pH B bh m
there R L v
() (S.) S H

2. The correct orthography of the Genevese transliteration of the characters appearing between brackets in the list above is described as follows:

(R.) (rr.) (L.) to replace the point which follows these letters by a small circle (°) subscribed;
(rr.) to reduce these two characters to one, surmounted of an accent of lengthening ^ ;
(h.) (Mr.) (T.) (HT.) (D.) (dh.) (N.) (S.) the point does not follow these letters, it is subscribed;
() is written S surmounted of an acute accent, and not S followed sign of apostrophe;
() is written N surmounted of a point, and not N followed sign of apostrophe.

3. And here the table of the characters of the alphabet Sanskrit in Genevese transliteration : (A page of assistance Unicode makes it possible to treat the orthography of the special characters correctly provided with diacritics).

(a TABLE to be supplemented in Genevese transcription will follow here…)

Typing transcription

In the absence of means typing able to write correctly what precedes, certain texts omit the diacritics (such small circles (°) and points (.) subscribed), and use frankly C and HS to note the two original characters corresponding to ( ) and to ( S. ), and laughed to note the vowel R. ( çiva or shiva for iva -, ashta for as.t.a -, and rishi for r.s.i -, for example). The use of the C is explained: C is the character of the International Phonetic Alphabet (of international phonetic Association, initials: API, founded in 1886 by Paul Passy) which corresponds best to the pronunciation of fricative the of the Sanskrit.

Petit Larousse large size 2006 transcribes the words Sanskrits without using any diacritic (thus one reads Mahabharata for mahâbhârata -), and always provides an orthography nearest to French (it gives télougou for telugu -); this article being addressed to French-speaking people it will follow this use which facilitates the use of internal and external bonds, but will supplement each quotation francized by the word Sanskrit in typing transcription, thus making it possible to the reader to approach with more close to the Indian traditional pronunciation of this eminently oral language.

A fast consultation of the screen without the assistance of Unicode makes the words transliterated illegible: this article will thus use a typing transcription using the characters noted above between brackets which, in a later version, will be followed of short a French translation, penmanship devanâgarî -, and of its Genevese transliteration to treat by Unicode to be readable.

Example: / as.t.a -/(in French: eight )/(in devanâgarî -: OOOO )/(transliteration: has?? has )/

Grammairiens and philologists

Old and modern Indian scholars

Old :

As for all the documents of the Indian history, the dates remain prone to guarantee, and sharp are the controversies. It is commonly allowed to locate Work in Eight Chapters ( as.tâdhyâyin -) of the grammairien Panini ( Pân.ini -) at, at the time of the flowering of the kingdoms of Kosala - and of Magadha - which separated the attempt from conquest of Persian Darius (521-486 av. J. - C.) of that of the Macedonian Alexandre Large the (326 av. J. - C.). Buddhism and Jaïnisme created an embarrassment growing for the post-vedic supremacy of the Brahmanism… and its language!

Two centuries later the grammairien Patanjali ( Patañjali- ) wrote its mahâ - bhâs.ya -, Grand Comment of the as.tâdhyâyin -, during the reign of the maurya - Buddhist which radiated with their capital Pataliputra - (current Patna ) to Indus, IH Lan' kâ , and the Far East. A purist proved quite necessary to avoid the intrusion of barbarisms in the old crowned language…

Modern :

RAM Mohan Roy (-)

(to be developed here: other Indian scholars)

Western scholars except the French

The study of the grammar of the Sanskrit largely exceeds the borders of France. Germans, English, Dutchman, Americans, take part in it actively. It would be advisable to quote the following indianists:

Diogo C Couto (Lisbon 1542 - Goa 1616), Portuguese;
João de Lucena (1548 - 1600), Portuguese, professor with Evora, Jesuit;
A. Rogerius (1651), Dutch;
P. Baldaeus (1672), Dutch;
Henry Thomas Colebrooke (London 1765 - London 1837), English;
Holwell (1771), Danish;

François-Felix-Adalbert Kuhn (Koenigsberg 1812 - Berlin 1881), German;
Robert Caldwell (1814 - 1891),
Rudolf De Roth (Stuttgart 1821 - Tubingue 1895), German, professor and librarian at the university of Tubingue;
Friedrich- max Müller (Dessau 1823 - Oxford 1900), German, taught in Oxford;
Albrecht Weber (Breslau 1825 - 1901), German, professor in Berlin;
Richard Pischel (1849 - 1908), German, professor in Berlin;
CH. R. Lanman (1850 - 1914), American, professor in Harvard;
Karl Geldner (1852 - 1929), German, Marburg;
Boehtlingk (1853-1876, years of collaboration with Roth to the dictionary Sanskrit);
Alfred Hillebrandt (1853 - 1927), German, Breslau;
Hermann Oldenberg (Hamburg 1854 - 1920), German, extraordinary professor in Berlin;
Mr. Bloomfield (1855 - 1928), American;
Willelm Caland (1859 - 1932), Dutch, Utrecht;
Sten Konow (1867 - 1948), Swedish, Oslo;
Rudolf Otto (1869 - 1937), German, Marburg;
Johannes Hertel (1872 - 1943), German? , Lipsia;
Jean Przyluski (1875 - 1944), Polish;
William Jones (1880 - 1953),
Monier Monier-Williams (1880 - 1953),
Hermann Lommel (1885 -?), German, Frankfurt;

Paul Thieme (1905 -?), German, Tubingue;
Jan Gonda (1905 -?), Dutch, professor in Utrecht, (see bibliography at the end of the article);
Mircéa Eliade (Bucharest 1907 - Chicago 1986), born Rumanian, naturalized American;

French scholars

François Bernier (Played-Étiau 1620 - Paris 1688), born in Maine-et-Loire, became during twelve years doctor of Aurangzeb. Called Pretty Philosopher, this doctor epicurean collaborated in the burlesque Arrêt of Boileau, published a Abrégé philosophy of Gassendi in 1678, visited England in 1685, published a Traité the free one and of the volunteer (1685), then his Voyages of Bernier containing the description of the States of Large Moghol and Hindoustan (republished in Amsterdam in 1699).

Gaston-Laurent Cœurdoux , Jesuit (Bourges 1691 - Pondichéry 1779) approached India in 1732. Missionary with Bukkapuram ( Andhra Pradesh ) in 1736, then higher of the mission of Maduré of 1744 to 1751, this disciple of the philologist Jean Calmette (Jesuit), compared the Sanskrit to the Greek and with Latin. Its linguistic observations, shortened in 1776 by the Desvaulx officer, will highly interest Anquetil-Duperron, the Dubois Abbot, and max Müller which will name it " father of philology comparée".

Abraham Hyacinthe Anquetil-Duperron (Paris 1731 - Paris 1805) went from 1755 to 1758 of Pondichéry in Surat, where Darab initiated it with the Parsi. In 1762, it deposited 180 manuscripts with the library of Louis XVI; the Academy of the inscriptions and the humanities, whose Mémoires contain its work, called it. It translated the Avesta in 1771, founded the School Orientalist, and published: Eastern Legislation (1778), Historical research and geographical of India (1786), Oupanishads translated into Latin (1804) which will fill with enthusiasm Arthur Schopenhauer (1788 - 1860).

Joseph Héliodore Garcin de Tassy (1794 - 1878) translated the poet Mir Taki (1826), wrote a Mémoire on the characteristics of the Islamic religion in India (1831), then a Notice on popular holidays of the Hindus (1834), the poetesses in India (1854), the hindoustanis authors and their works (1868), Histoire of the literature hindouie and Hindustani (1870,71).

the first pulpit of Sanskrit in Occident was occupied by Antoine-Léonard Chézy at the Collège de France in 1814.

Its compatriot Eugene Burnouf (1801-1851) gave also its lessons of vedism to Paris.

Abel Bergaigne (1838-1888) tried then a rigorous philological interpretation of the r.gveda -.

Alexandre Langlois (1788-1854) gave a translation of it more " littéraire" that specifies (published in 1872, to see bibliography below).

V. Henry (1850-1907) taught in Paris also, strongly influenced to him by the Vedische Studïen of the German Karl Geldner .

At the XXe century is detached work from Louis Renou (1896-1966), his Grammaire sanskrite going back to 1935, and its vedic Grammaire of 1952, is masterly.

the eclectic and grammatical studies of Jean Varenne also deserve to hold the attention.

As for the works of Madeleine Biardeau , they exceed the narrow executives of linguistics to offer from the original points of view on the Indian traditional culture.

By the young person and brilliance professor Vincent Ramos (born in 1977), author of remarkable articles devoted to the Sanskrit, the study of this traditional language penetrates the third millennium.

Phonetics

The phonetics of the Sanskrit is the study of the elementary sounds of this language. Before approaching the phonological theory sound system, it is appropriate to practice the correct pronunciation of these sounds, sometimes strange for a French speaker. The extreme religious importance and magic range successively by the vedism, the Brahmanism and the hindouism with the ritual pronunciation of the crowned verses is to be underlined.

And yet, in India, the use of the contemporary languages often influences the traditional pronunciation of the Sanskrit. Thus the word sam.skr.ta - itself, which states " sanskr' ou' t" upstream of Gange, becomes " sanskr' i' t" downstream from the crowned river (but the traditional language pronounced the vowel R. rolled, without I nor or added).

See also: Sanskrit (phonology), section: Religious importance of orthoepy.

Note : Far from competing with itself, the article Sanskrit (phonology) and this talk are supplemented harmoniously and without redundancy: the article in epigraph provides, in the shape of practical tables to consult, followed numbered remarks, a very good inventory of various characteristics of the phonology of the Sanskrit, while a talk propaedeutics prepares here systematically the boarding of the morphology of the Sanskrit, incomprehensible without an exhaustive knowledge of phonological preconditions to which it will constantly be referred thereafter.

Elementary phonemes (sounds)

The aks.ara- samâmnâya - is the " fruit of the gathering mental" ( samâmnâya -) of the sounds " indécomposables" (imperishable: will aks.ara -) of the crowned language.

Orthoepy (good pronunciation)

Before studying phonology, the French speaker must form his ear (and its mouth) with the rigorous pronunciation of the vowels and consonant half-syllables of the traditional Sanskrit:

Each vowel ( will svara -) is short ( hrasva -) or long ( dîrgha -), and the duration long is worth that of short twice.

has â
the alphabet starts with the neutral vowel has . First approximation: that French pronounces " a date" , then " a dot" , the has short Sanskrit is located between this has and this O French : without forcing, that it tries to pronounce will svara - (its, vowel) " sworo" as in " orographie". Second approximation: suffering from laryngitis, French consults his doctor who opens the mouth to him, flattens the language using a spatula to him and asks him to say A. Which it finds then, without spatula, this low position of the language: here the has short neutral of the Sanskrit. As for the long â , its stamp is that of " âtre" in French. When Flemish pronounces " dat is naast of tafel " , the has short neutral of the Sanskrit gets along exactly in " dat ", and the long â in naast and tafel .
Sanskrit Example: nâgarî - (town) presents the two nuances;

I I
French known as " I L sees the I le" , the I in short and the long I of the Sanskrit get along extremely well here: in short in iva - (Auspicieux), length in pâlî - (vernacular language of the Buddhists).
Example: the Hindi word - (Indian language) presents the two nuances;

U U
French briefly pronounces " roux" and lengthily " roue" (that he forgets really the sound U of " rue"), will anusvâra - (its later) means " roughly; onouswâro" or " enouswâr'".
Example: the word ulûka - (owl, hululor) presents the two nuances;

(R.) (rr.)
decides " roulé" while making vibrate the language on the cells, behind the incisors. By telling to daa' r' is een R egel Flemish pronounces exactly R. rolled of the Sanskrit, which regards this sound as a vowel. The (rr.) long rolls in the same way, but twice longer.
Example: prâkr.t - (vernacular language), (extremely rare is the rr. long);

(L.) (L.)
the short vowel decides like the L in bottle in English, the long one meets (very seldom) in old texts vedic, but is not used any more in Sanskrit.
Example: kl.pta - (ordered, arranged);

E have
French known as " it était" , E Sanskrit decides E French , but have Sanskrit corresponds to a E lengthened and diphthong as in " ayant". Pân.ini - considers these two sounds, long, like diphthongs.
Example: deva - (god, action to shine), daivata - (divine, unexpected);

O with the
French known as " too much tôt" , " tôt" give the sound O Sanskrit as in yogin - (having experience of the yoga -); with the corresponds to the sound of " trop" , or better with the synthetic sound o+ou in the sentence " tr' o' p or too peu". These two sounds, long, are also regarded as diphthongs by Pân.ini -. The word will raudra - (terrible) " decides; rowdr".
Examples: yogin -, will raudra -;

h.
the state visarga - (incréé, unexpressed) of a consonant is only after vowel, in end mot. Dire in French " the has ha' che" , " the p' you i' T Hi laire" , " the gr' o' S Ho rion" , gives to understand Aha, Ihi, Oho , (the Sanskrit expires h. after the final vowel of the topic, who returns in light echo after the breathlessness of the h. ); " dieux" devah is translated. (without final indent since the topic receives here an ending which transforms it into declined word) which decides " déwahe".
Examples: devah. (gods), ulûkah. (of the owls);

Mr.
a nasalisation will anusvâra - (postvocalic) sometimes the statement of a vowel follows, as in French in " I uan' them Pines, at An tibes". Thus sam.skr.tam (without indent because here in its declined form) gave " sanscrit" in French. But the speaker in Sanskrit states initially the vowel, and finishes by the nasalisation ( a+an ), it says " a-an' - skritam". In front of the consonant L , the nasalisation uses, in writing devanâgarî -, an alternate diacritic named anunâsika - (posterior nasalisation), of rare occurrence.
Exemple of will anusvâra -: sam.khyâ - (number, calculation),
Example of anunâsika -: tâm.l lokâm.l laks.ayâmah. (we look at these people);

K KH
let us distinguish French " a cadre" (Sanskrit K ) of English " cat" has; (Sanskrit KH ) extremely expired.
Examples: kâma - (desire) but khâdati (he eats);

G gh
let us distinguish in the same way French " a garçon" (Sanskrit G , always as in " gué" , never as in " génisse") of English " goal" has; (Sanskrit gh extremely expired).
Examples: gandhin - (scented, and name of Mohandas K. Gandhi), but will ghora - (terrible);

the traditional Greek translated " a nouvelle" by He aggelia , this nasal gutturale corresponds well to the Sanskrit (a point surmounts N in Genevese transliteration).
examples: an' ka - (a number), an' ga - (body, or member of a body);

C CH
French must absolutely avoid thinking of a " canard" or with a " chat" by reading these characters; but by saying " young Czech in Chad, without tchador" , the C Sanskrit will be three times precisely marked. He sneezes then of good heart, " atchoum" , and here the CH Sanskrit extremely expired. The alphabet Sanskrit in general presents a character for each emitted sound, but the characters C and CH represent two synthesized sounds here ( t+sha ) and ( t+sha extremely expired).
Examples: will candra - (the moon) and cheda - (cut, container);

J jh
French distinguishes the word " a' dj' ectif" (its Sanskrit J ) of the English word " joker" has; (its Sanskrit jh more expired). He discovers, here still, two synthesized sounds ( d+ja ) and ( d+jha extremely expired).
Examples: jîvati (he saw), but jhas.a - (fish);

ñ
"it bai' gn' is had with the ba' gn' e" state the nasal palatal sanskrite twice, transliterated ñ .
Example tâñ janân nayati (it leads these people);

T. HT.
(attention: in Genevese transliteration the diacritic point is subscribed). How to make these sounds rétroflexes unknown in French? English " table" has; provides HT roughly. Sanskrit extremely expired. The sound T. is similar, but without expiry. To produce it, it is necessary to touch the throat of the point of the language, and to make return the language up to the point or it touches the hard end of the palate: such is the position rétroflexe of the language on this joint which separates the hard palate from the soft veil. The Portuguese use this position to pronounce the L rétroflexe Brasil or Portugal . To pronounce the T. Sanskrit the speaker unrolls his language which opera hat of a dry blow, like that of a chameleon who gobe his fly.
Examples: ghât.a - (a pot), and path.ati (he recites);

D. dh.
is sound consonants rétroflexes articulated on the same point as the deaf persons described above. English saying " daddy" this dh emits roughly. expired Sanskrit, and " C you… " provides D. Sanskrit without expiry. Orthographical remark: in Genevese transliteration the diacritic point is subscribed.
Examples: pan.d.it - (scholar), and dr.dh.a - (violent one);

N.
nasal the rétroflexe poses the point of the language on the same joint as the rétroflexes previously described.
Examples: krîn.âmi (I buy), varn.a - (nuance, color or… vowel);

T HT
French " tiroir" give the T Sanskrit, and " atterrer" HT Sanskrit more expired (" terrific" " in English would still be appropriate to better illustrate this sound).
Examples: trayah. (three), and atha (then);

D dh
French " douceur" provides exactly the D Sanskrit, English " date" has; the dh Sanskrit more expired.
Examples: deva - (god), and dharma - (the specific duty to each social class);

N
as in French in " Nicolas".
Example: nâgarî - (urban, polished);

p pH
French " pur" give exactly the p Sanskrit, and English " pub" the aspiration suitable emits for pH of the Sanskrit (it is necessary to take care not to pronounce F, its unknown of the Sanskrit).
Examples: purus.a - (male man), but phala - (fruit);

B bh
French " batterie" and English " butter" these two sounds of the Sanskrit return well. (phonology will name consonants " aspirées" these consonants followed by a " expiration" very marked).
Examples: bandhu - (relation, relationship), but bhakti - (pious devotion);

m
much of languages pronounces this m correctly by saying " Maman".
Example: matsya - (fish, first misadventure - of Vis.n.u -);

R L v
French pronounces these sounds in " correctly there; there ole" , " R ural" (attention, R rolled of Picardy or Flemish), " L aver" , but not in " valoir". The Belgian saying " wallon" or " wagon" the sound better v Sanskrit (the initial one of the verb " approaches; ouir" provides a good French approximation of this exotic stamp).
Examples: yajur - (dedication), will râmcandra - (Lunar merry, seventh misadventure - of Vis.n.u -), laks.mî - (goddess of fortune, marries Vis.n.u -), and Vis.n.u - (the Pénétrant god);

its completely unknown to French (in Genevese transliteration the " sign apostrophe" is posed with the top of the S like a " accent aigu"). The orthoepic approximation practices could be carried out as follows:

to say " a chaton" , by pronouncing this hushing language touches practically all the lower teeth which surround it,

to retract the language towards the bottom of the throat, its point to the bottom, its medium convex to the top, in this posture Flemish could pronounce geen , German ich bin ,

by keeping this position the language moves away to the maximum of all the lower teeth which surround it, and pronounces " again; chaton" , initial the chuinte this time of the bottom of the mouth, and here initial the sanskrite of the name of iva - which does not resemble any more that of the French words " chicon" or " chicorée". That French does not say " chakuntala" to name âkuntalâ -, nor " achoka" to call As' oka - because these characters would not recognize their name.

Examples: âkha - (connects), akti - (energy);

S.
(in Genevese transliteration the point is subscribed to the S ). The French pronunciation in is easy, and is found in " chaud" , " chère" , " chaton" … In English in " to shake" , " to shine" , " shock" has; , which explains the alternative transcription of the Sanskrit S. by HS (to which the alternative transcription of the preceding hushing sound is opposed by C as in çiva ).
Examples: es.i (you go), aks.a - (an eye);

S
is whistling it normal of French in " siffler". While pronouncing these three sibilantes, the language goes forwards for S (" soleil"), in the middle of the mouth for S. (" chaleur"), and with the back for ( iva - writing sometimes çiva ).
Example for S : sva - (oneself), will svara - (a sound);

H
the last letter of the alphabet is not easiest to pronounce. Not to confuse this sound with the initial one of " hache". The name of Jean Sebastien Bach decides " bak" in French, who by this K prevents the expiry of air. By slackening the pressure the air will escape, making it possible Dutch to pronounce gaan , German to say Bach , and to the speaker of Sanskrit to give to understand a hastin - which, for the French ear, resembles " rasta" or with " Gaston" …
Examples: hastin - (elephant), hanti (they strike, they kill).

After this long practice of logopedics, the theoretical study of the phonology of the Sanskrit can rest on the experiment of these sounds , unquestionable quite strange for the ear and the mouth of the French-speaking person.

Phonology (sound system)

Phonology is the science which works out a theory of the phonemes. It names phonemes the elementary sounds, abstracted from a language (here, Sanskrit), studied according to their joints, their emission modes, their durations, and that without taking account of their grammatical or semantic values.

Phonology of Pânini

The first phonologist (known) of the Sanskrit was the grammairien Pân.ini -, which discriminated in all 46 fundamental sound of its language (that the section of orthoepy above made it possible to assimilate) two groups of phonemes: the vocalic ones and the consonant ones.

Its alphabet aks.arasamâmnâya - is conceived as a mental gathering of the will aks.ara -, these literally indestructibles forms (i.e. indecomposable) of the varn.a - (sound nuances). He listened to speech the Sanskrit, he recognized in what he heard certain sound nuances, he analyzed these nuances in elementary forms that he described as indecomposable, he studied the phonetic characteristics of these will varn.âks.ara - (indecomposable forms of the sound nuances), he operated then a sorting which offers a phonetic synthesis more to us good than one simple alphabet.

This mental collection ( samâmnâya -) presents initially 13 vocalic phonemes: nine svaravarn.a - (vocalic nuances) and four will sam.dhyaks.ara - (indecomposable vocalic units) what French translated by nine vowels and four diphthongs.

The nine vowels are: has â I I U U R. rr. L. . The four diphthongs are E have O with the . Orthoepy herebefore presented makes it possible to correctly pronounce these phonemes, of which the duration varies the simple one for the short ones ( hrasva -) with the double for the long ones ( dîrgha -). The diphthongs phonologiquement are phonologiquement regarded as long nuances ( dîrghavarn.a -).

The first vowel presented, has , is lowest (low position of the language) and most neutral (the language goes neither forwards nor towards the back of the mouth). The second, â , is less low, longer, but as neutral as the first.

Follow I I U U . The phonemes I and I are characterized only by their durations, their stamps are homophonous. This remark is also true for U and U . The homophonous vowels I and I are marked in front of the mouth, the homophons U and U with the back of the oral body.

Vibrating rolled the R. and rr. and liquid L. is considered here as vocalic nuances ( svaravarn.a -). With the short vowels I U R.L. and their long homophons I U rr. L. (the purely theoretical latter) corresponds four consonants there v R L which will be classified further in the alphabet. They decide ya wa ruffle the and are used in intervocalic position by the language sanskrite which name them antah.sthâ -, i.e. interposed.

To close the whole of the vocalic phonemes, Pân.ini - we presents four will sam.dhyaks.ara -, indecomposable couples of vowels which French rather badly translates by diphthongs, because as well E as O are emitted long but monophtonguées (" E " , " O "), the phonemes have and with the being only pronounced like true diphthongs (" ay ", " aw "). But Pân.ini - considers less the pronunciation of these phonemes will sam.dhyaks.ara - that their intimate structure. He regards them as a vowel I (or I ) and U (or U ) reinforced by the presence of an initial vowel has which amalgamates with them: a+i or a+î becomes E , a+u or a+û becomes O . These phonemes are long ( dîrgha -) because they add the durations with their components. They are gun.a - (reinforced) by the neutral vowel has that they integrate. In the same way, the phonemes have and with the is heard like a vowel I (or î' ) and U (or U ) amalgamating with initial long a â neutral which increases them in vr.ddhi - (increase): â+i or â+î gives have , â+u or â+û gives to the , diphthongs true.

The samâmnâya - (mental collection) of phonemes classifies then all the consonants ( vyañjana - literally " démaquillées" because detached their vocalic ornaments). Should it nevertheless be recalled here that these consonants are half-syllabic, i.e. a has neutral rests on each one of them ( T decides your for example, p says Pa , etc).

The phonology of Pân.ini - distinguishes three groups from vyañjana - (without ornaments): the spars' has - (contacting) which puts the language in contact with various joints (what French translated by occlusive), the antah.sthâ - (interposed) already mentioned above (the Ya Ra It Goes named French semivowels or semi-consonants), finally the ûs.man - (" chauffantes" : the hushing ones and whistling it which accompanies, in all the languages of the world, a too ebullient drink…) ûs.man - which includes four phonemes (hushing postpones , hushing a neutral S. , one whistling S , and laryngeal sound a H ) whose section orthoepy tried to describe the pronunciation.

Pushing its phonological rigor further, Pân.ini - aligns initially the spars' avyañjana - (contacting " décolorées" their vocalic nuances) analyzed according to their joints (literally their contact points, spars' has -) and classified into four varga - (square, or classes). Each square ( varga -) gathers, by contact point, a aghos.a - (not-sounding) not-aspired, a aghos.a - (not-sounding) aspired, a ghos.avant - (sounding) not-aspired, a ghos.avant - (sounding) aspired. As example, for the contact point dantya - (dental), the varga - (square) enumerates a T deaf not-aspired, a deaf HT aspired, a D sound not-aspired, a sound dh aspired. The ancient phonologist adds a class to this squares: the nâsika - (nasal); in the example above the nasal dental consonant is N . Each joint will thus support five qualities of consonants.

The contact points are named back forwards mouth: the kan.thya - (born from the throat, or gutturales), the tâlavya - (born from the palate, or palatals), the mûrdhanya - (born from the head, or cerebral, or cacuminales), the dantya - (born from the teeth, or dental consonants), and the os.th.ya - (born from the lips, or labial). The combination of the 5 joints and the 5 modes of pronunciation gives 25 consonants classified as follows:

of the throat: K KH G gh
of the palate: C CH J jh N
of the head: T. HT. D. dh. N.
of the teeth: T HT D dh N
of the lips: p pH B bh m

The antah.sthâvyañjana - (interposed devoized) are, for memory:

there R L v

And the ûs.manvyañjana - (" chauffantes" devoized) are:

S.S H

Pân.ini - considers except collection (except samâmnâya -) the nasalisations will anusvâra - and anunâsika -, as well as lack of emission ( visarga -) which replaces certain consonants at the end of the mot. These modifiers of sonority are noted, in writing devanâgarî -, by diacritics and not by independent characters (the visarga - is noted by a double dot (: ) replacing the consonant which it substitutes, transliterated h. ; the will anusvâra - by a point ( bindu -) the vowel surmounts that it nasalise, this diacritic is transliterated by a Mr. which follows the nasalized vowel; the anunâsika - surmounts by a candrabindu - (the point-moon) the vowel followed by L that it nasalise, this diacritic is transliterated by me , the sign of apostrophe replacing the " here; point-lune" who surmounts this me ).

The lexicography will classify later the affected vowels of these diacritic before these same vowels followed by K . (In the dictionaries, one will find the word sam.khya - far before the word sakâma -, which itself precedes by far the word samkaks.a -, the m in this last word really representing the nasal consonant m ), (translation of these words: sam.khya - a number; sakâma - lascif; samkaks.a - having even category).

Such was the masterly nomenclature of an Indian grammairien born 24 centuries before Wikipédia.

Contemporary phonology

While speaking, the speaker uses his vocal apparatus , composed of the bodies of phonation which physiology describes (lungs which expire, throat which contains the vocal cords, the nose also and its nasal fossae, and stops it which shelters this essential body, the language, a hard palate and its soft veil, teeth, lips). The sounds, considered as basic units of the phonation produced by this whole of bodies, name phonemes . Phonology analyzes the phonemes of a language, it describes contrasts which make it possible to discriminate these phonemes by reciprocal oppositions, it establishes the sound system of this language. The phonology of the Sanskrit gives itself for object the description of the sound system of the crowned language inherited the veda -.

The first remarkable contrast between the phonemes comes from the opposition of their functions vocalic and consonant . In Sanskrit, for example, the phoneme â functions only as a vowel, and the phoneme K arises only according to consonant, but certain phonemes ( THERE R L V ) can function and like vowels (in the forms I / I R. / rr. L. / L. U / U ) and like consonants (in the forms there R L v ). Phonology calls commonly vowels phonemes met exclusively in function vocalic in language, it names in the same way consonants phonemes which is shown only in consonant function, as for the phonemes which are in one and the other function, it qualifies them semivowels (or semi-consonants) and name them sounding .

1.Système vocalic of the Sanskrit

The alphabet aks.arasamâmnâya - presents initially vowels, semivowels, and diphthongs whose whole constitutes the vowel system Sanskrit. Phonology distinguishes the phonemes participating in this system according to their stamp and them lasted .

vocalic Stamps :

The position of the language which approaches the throat or the tooth alveoluses, its rise compared to the palate, and the opening of the mouth that form the lips, modulate the stamp of each vowel.

While moving back towards the throat, the language modulates vowels known as of back (the U marked " ou" Sanskrit for example). While advancing towards the tooth alveoluses, it produces vowels of before (the such I of French and the Sanskrit). When the language goes neither forwards nor backwards, phonology says that this third position neutralizes the vowel which it makes it possible to state (the has Sanskrit is thus a neutral vowel).

While rising towards the palate, a high language makes it possible to pronounce high vowels ( U and I of the Sanskrit for example). The language drops while moving away from the palate, in its lowest position it makes it possible to state the low vowel more which is also most neutral (the has Sanskrit). The diphthongs of Pân.ini - will be less neutral and higher than this has fundamental.

While moving away or approaching mutually, the lips will open or close the mouth. A vowel is known as open when she decides the open mouth ( has Sanskrit), and closed when she states herself through a mouth which tends to be closed (thus the I and the U of the Sanskrit).

It is the posture of the bodies of phonation which is of back or before or neutral, high or low, opened or closed, and the vowels are thus qualified only by ellipse (phonology known as " vowel fermée" for " vowel pronounced by a mouth almost fermée" , and " vowel of arrière" for " vowel pronounced with the language massed towards the arrière").

Angles of a theoretical triangle named " triangle of the vowels " correspond to the extreme positions of the language in the oral cavity: neutral and low position of the is , position before high I , position of back high of the U .

vocalic Durations :

The length of a vowel is function of the duration of its emission, produced by the expiry of air of the lungs. The emission of a long vowel lasts twice longer than that of a short vowel . This phenomenon will be a decisive criterion for the stressing of the words on a long syllable (syllable which contains a long vowel).

The alphabet aks.arasamâmnâya - methodically presents per pairs the homophonous phonemes of the Sanskrit in vocalic function, each short sound being followed of its long alternative (are homophonous the of the same phonemes stamps but of different duration, thus has and â , I and I , U and U , R. and rr. , L. and L. ). To note however that has and â is not really homophonous, has deciding slightly low than â , as announced in the section of orthoepy.

Diphthongs and diereses :

A diphthong results, during the same vocalic emission, crossing (of the Greek dia ) voiced (of the Greek phthonguè ) of the air between two successive positions of the bodies of phonation. Contrary to the dieresis, which emits successively two vowels differentiated (in French " aïoli" for example), the diphthong emits only one its, modulated on two different vocalic positions. The effect of the diphthong gives to a synthetic vowel, amalgamated (French known as " quoi" and not quo-ï").

French does not regard the diphthongs elementary sounds, but well as combinations of vowels; consequently, it states in its alphabet (Latin) vowels pure, analyzed, and not the diphthongs which, for him, result from a synthesis. The Sanskrit on the contrary quotes the diphthongs E have O with the in its aks.arasamâmnâya - under indecomposable phonemes ( will aks.ara -), (although it does not save a description structural of these phonemes which will be extremely useful for him to explain vocalic alternations in question further, in morphology).

The proto-védique one pronounced diereses which started in low and neutral position of the language ( has / â ), and tended towards a position of the language high and differentiated (of back U / U , or of before I / I ), which produced the diereses have and with the . The historical evolution of the language then resulted in pronouncing these diereses with such a speed that they amalgamated in diphthongs have and with the (as in " r' ei' s" and " fl' au' w" in Flemish, but not " monophtonguées" as in the words " lait" and " autre" of French). These diphthongs passed finally to the " monophtongues" E and O long (which by this length kept the trace of their origin " double"). Modern phonology considers have and with the like true diphthongs, E and O like false diphthongs. But the Sanskrit does not know the vowels E and O short and pure of the Indo-European, which one finds in French.

Nasalisation of the vowels :

The phonological explanation of the nasalisation of the vowels, noted by the will anusvâra - and the anunâsika -, is extremely well developed in another article already quoted before, whose bond is given hereafter.

See also: Sanskrit (phonology), section: Principal characteristics of phonology sanskrite.

2.Système consonant of the Sanskrit

The alphabet aks.arasamâmnâya - stated then the 33 consonants and half-consonants according to the rigorous phonological order transmitted as of Pân.ini - until our days. Contemporary phonology takes again approximately this order: the 25 occlusive ones determined by their five modes and their five joints the four fricative ones succeed ( S.S H ), then the four sounding ( there R L v ), these eight phonemes being also classified according to their joint, which the alphabet of Pân.ini - did not show.

The phonology of today corrects slightly the terminology of Pân.ini -, with regard to the joints. It indicates that the phonemes known as gutturaux ( kan.thya -) by Pân.ini - is in fact of velar ( K KH G gh ). And it precisely names rétroflexes the cerebral ones, mûrdhanya - large grammairien Indian, considering more important the mention of the inflection of the language rather than the support of T. HT. D. dh. N. on the joint cacuminal. It re-elects finally bilabials the labial ones ( os.th.ya -) of Pân.ini -.

For the remainder, the article Sanskrit (phonology) already mentioned provides a complete table of occlusive (known as also plosives), the fricative ones, sounding (known as " continuous autres"), and joined there homorganic ( will anusvâra - and visarga -) the all phonemes which it would be redundant to describe again here.

Silences

In 458 av. J. - C. a cosmologist jainist wrote in Sanskrit his lokavibhâga -, treated cosmology which mentions for the first time the concept of zero . Mental revolution to invent a concept, and a sign, noting the absence of something. Without using the zero strictly speaking, its language (sanskrite) however knows some manners of stopping elocution, to mark a pause, to make silence.

Ainsi a syncope of the has initial of a word can occur (when E or O finishes the word which precedes, for example). The orthographical sign formed like a S by the writing devanâgarî -, named avagraha -, replaces this then has to mark the phonetic elision of it. In transliteration the avagraha - is noted by a sign of apostrophe.
Example: the words râjo , will atra , âste , can form a sentence râjo' trâste , with " élision" has initial which becomes… dumb, quiet. (Translation: the king sits here, literally: the king here assied).

the virâma - is an orthographical sign of the writing devanâgarî - in the oblique shape of feature, which underlines the final consonant of a word to announce the syncope, in this half-syllable, of the has short neutral which normally should finish any consonant.
Example: when the topic vâc - (voice, marked " vâtcha") becomes the word vâk (which normally should decide " vâka") a feature virâma - subscribed to the K allows to announce the nonsyllabic pronunciation vâk , i.e. finishing on the occlusive one not voiced. In transliteration the virâma - since the C-W communication vâk announces without ambiguity the absence of has final, in other words the silence imposed on the will hardly be used has until the ear sanskrite waits, and which marks a pause at the end of a mot.

to mark a pause (after a half-stanza in poetry or, in prose, after a sentence), which French would note using a comma is marked in devanâgarî - by a bar of named minim rest dan.da - (stick).

to mark a stronger silence (which finish a stanza in poetry or, in prose, a paragraph), French uses a final point, the writing devanâgarî - a double bar of double named pause dan.da uses - (double stick). These two punctuation marks were already presented in the section treating of penmanship.

The traditional texts published by Nadine Stchoupak in her Chrestomathie sanskrite show the Indian manner of using these signs, and figures (including the zero!), in the writing of poetry. (This book, already quoted, figure in the bibliography which finishes this article).

The final syllable of a word Sanskrit followed by a pause or a silence is, say the grammairiens, in final absolute . The phonetic modifications which a word in " undergoes; finale absolue" prepares with the additional phonetic transformations which it will undergo in sandhi . By this concept of sandhi, developed in the following section, phonology leaves the field of the description of the isolated elementary phonemes, extracted from their phraseological context, to approach the phonetic deteriorations generated by their mutual contact during their elocution in words and sentences.

Phonetic deteriorations

A sentence sanskrite is made up ( sam.hitâ -) of a succession ( chanda -) of words, either invariable the such adverbs, or bent the such declined nouns or the conjugated verbs. The final syllable of each one of these words can be phonetically modified with the contact ( sam.dhi -) of initial of the word which follows it. This Sandhi ( sam.dhi -) or contact between the final syllable of a word and the initial syllable of the following word is described as sandhi external .

Example: who hears athayogânus' âsanam recognizes the first verse ( will sûtra -) samâdhipâda - which begins the will yogasûtra - of Patañjali -. This verse presents three words, an adverb ( atha - then), and two names ( yoga - practical of yoga, and anus' âsana - control), which form a nominal sentence. The has in short final yoga - and the initial anus' âsana has in short - is in sandhi external and deteriorates phonetically in a long â .

By analogy, the sandhi (contact) between two syllables constitutive of only one word (which can involve, him also, various phonetic deteriorations) is known as sandhi intern .

example: the word vr.ddhim (increase) is analyzed as follows: root vr.dh -, suffix - Ti -, ending - m marking the accusative. The phoneme dh which finishes the root, and the sound T initial of the suffix are in sandhi internal and deteriorate phonetically in ddh , modification already more complex than that of the preceding example ( has + has = â ).

Lastly, the final syllable of a word followed by a pause, like is already announced, in absolute position of final .

Example: finally absolute bh is deafened in p , and anus.t.ubh - (name of one meter vedic) means, before pause, anus.t.up ||

A complete phonetic description of the phenomenon named sandhi will thus approach successively:

phonetic deteriorations of a word Sanskrit finally absolute,
those of the external sandhi between two words Sanskrits,
and those of the sandhi intern in a word Sanskrit.

This description will review all the possible phonemes while following the order of the alphabet aks.arasamâmnâya - of Panini.

Absolute finale

If, in front of a pause or a silence, a word ends in:

1° a vowel ( has â I I U U R. rr. L. ) or a diphthong ( E have O with the ): the pronunciation maintains without deteriorations this vowel or this diphthong;

Example: krîn.âmi || (I buy) the I final unchanged remainder;

2° several consonants: the first consonant is only marked, the following ones syncopated;

Example: that is to say the verb Kr. - (to make) with the personal singular of the participle present: kurvants , the syncope of ts prepares a pause and one writes and pronounces kurvan || (making);

3° an occlusive nonpalatal deaf person ( K T.T p ): it is maintained unaltered;

Example: pañcâs' At (fifty) does not deteriorate its T final before a pause;

4° occlusive aspired (a KH gh HT. dh. HT dh pH bh ): the aspiration refers on the initial sound consonant of the last marked syllable; in the absence of such sound ( G D or B ), the aspiration is lost;

Example: a word finished by °budh - would become °bhud - but a word finished by °s.t.ubh - would give °s.t.ub was not the following rule;

5° occlusive sound not aspired ( G D.D B ): the pronunciation deafens this sound phoneme (which becomes respectively K T.T or p );

Example: the termination °budh - preceding example, become °bhud after carryforward of aspiration, decides °bhut before a pause, and the termination °s.t.ubh -, become °s.t.ub after loss of aspiration decides °s.t.up before a pause; the personal singular of the adjective dharmabudhs (which takes care of good to act) decides and is written thus dharmabhut before a pause, and the name of meter anus.t.ubhs met herebefore, declined here with the personal singular, becomes anus.t.up before a pause;

6° an occlusive palatal ( C CH J jh ): the joint transfers onto the velar deaf person K known as gutturale by Panini (and more rarely on the rétroflexe cerebral deaf person T. ), with carryforward or loss of aspiration as explained above;

Example: the adjective udac - (septentrional) and udak with the personal singular is written decides; and blood ( asr.j -) decides and is written asr.k finally absolute; but samrâj - (sovereign) becomes samrât. before a pause;

7° occlusive nasal ( ñ N. N m ): this nasal is maintained unaltered, except the nasal palatal ñ which transports its joint on that of nasal the rétroflexe cerebral ;

Example:

8° a ûs.man -, either fricative hushing a or S. , or laryngeal sound the H (but not whistling it S ): not and mode of articulation transfer onto the rétroflexe cerebral deaf person T. (and more rarely on the velar deaf person K );

Example: finally absolute dis'- decides dik (not cardinal), s.as. - says s.at. (six), and the avette of Ronsard, small bootlicker of honey ( madhu -) is the bee madhulih - which becomes madhulit. ;

9° travelling the R or whistling it S : amuïssent themselves in visarga - h. ;

Example: antar (inside) becomes antah. , and mahârâjas (large kings) amuit in mahârâjah. ;

Phonetic deteriorations described above lead to the following phonemes, only actually heard the finally absolute one:

all vowels and diphthongs (except R. rr. L.)

following consonants: the occlusive deaf persons K T.T p' , nasal N. N m , the visarga - h. , and the liquid L .

External Sandhi

vocalic Sandhi :

When the final vowel of a word meets the initial vowel of the following word, these two vowels can be homophonous ( has and â ) or hétérophones ( has and I ). Panini qualifies savarn.a - (of similar nuance) the homophonous vowels.

Sandhi of simple vowels homophonous ( savarn.a-) :

The sandhi amalgamates two homophonous simple vowels in a its of the same length stamps, as follows:

â results from has + has , has + â , â + has , â + â ,

I results from I + I , I + I , I + I , I + I ,

U results from U + U , U + U , U + U , U + U ,

rr. results from R. + R. , R. + rr. , rr. + R. , rr. + rr. , (theoretical possibilities, of occurrence little attends),

L. results from L. + L. , L. + L. , L. + L. , L. + L. , (theoretical possibilities, of very rare occurrence),

Examples: athâste (it assied then) is analyzed in atha + âste (then + it assied); yadîcchasi (if you wish) is analyzed in yadi + icchasi (if + you wish); mr.dûdakam (a fresh water) is analyzed in mr.du + udakam (soft + water, neutral words).

Sandhi of vowels hétérophones : The sandhi of two simple vowels hétérophones whose first is not neutral ( has or â ) deteriorates this final vowel of the first word in the corresponding semi-consonant, as follows:

ya results from I + has , I + has , and yâ results from I + â , I + â ,

yu results from I + U , I + U , and yû results from I + U , I + U ,

goes results from U + has , U + has , and vâ results from U + â , U + â ,

VI results from U + I , U + I , and VI results from U + I , U + I ,

Examples: atyârtâ (very concerned) is analyzed in ATI + ârtâ (very + concerned); atyugrah. (too much violates) is analyzed in ATI + will ugras (too much + violent one); mr.dvasti (they is soft) is analyzed in mr.du + silk (soft with the personal singular neutral + it is); asavîs' varah. (that one is lord) is analyzed in asau + îs' will varas (that one + lord);

in the same way:

ruffle results from R. + has , rr. + has , and râ results from R. + â , rr. + â ,

laughed results from R. + I , rr. + I , and IH results from R. + I , rr. + I ,

Ru results from R. + U , rr. + U , and Ru results from R. + U , rr. + U ,

the / lâ , Li / Li , read / Lu results from similar formations, but from practically null occurrence in the texts Sanskrits post-vedic.

Example: bhrâtrartham (for a brother) is analyzed in bhrâtr. + artham (brother + for);

The sandhi of two simple vowels hétérophones whose first is it neutral ( has or â ) deteriorates these two vowels in a diphthong (of full degree, gun.a -), as follows:

E results from has + I , has + I , â + I , â + I ,

o' results from has + U , has + U , â + U , â + U ,
rear results from has + R. , has + rr. , â + R. , â + rr. ,
Al results from has + L. , has + L. , â + L. , â + L. , (theoretical but of quasi null occurrence);

Examples: itaratheritam (otherwise marked) is analyzed in itarathâ + îritam (otherwise + pronounced, last of ir takes part -); cogrâ (and forces) is analyzed in Ca + ugrâ (and + forces); yathars.abhah. (a such bull) is analyzed in yatha + r.s.abhas (like + bull);

Internal Sandhi

The sandhi intern… (to be supplemented)…

the Sanskrit is a language, its character oral is preeminent. The writing of this language phonetic, and is accurately reproduced the pronunciation of the words. The grammatical forms of the bent words (declined nouns or conjugated verbs) strongly deteriorate in the course of elocution. The phonetic orthography often camouflages the subjacent theoretical grammatical forms, and requires a mental effort to guess those!

the alphabet Sanskrit (aks.arasamâmnâya) class all sounds of the language according to very precise phonetic criteria.

the sandhi in Sanskrit

Stressing

Pitch

Tonic accent

Morphology

Roots

Lexeme

The root is the basic element of the Mot Sanskrit. Its structure is ternary and generally includes/understands initial consonant, a vocalization, and a consonant final ( e.g. TUD- ). With some roots one or two of these three elements theoretically constitutive of the root misses ( e.g. AD, DHÂ-, I, ). The indent which follows the root marks the absence of grammatical termination necessary so that the word can function in the context ( samhitâ ) of a sentence.

Vocalic alternations

Root-word

Topics

Derivation

Primary derivation

The use of affixes makes it possible to create new words on the basis of the root. These affixes are prefixes (e.g. adhiKAR- ) of infix (e.g. BHInaD -) or suffixes (e.g. MANana- ). These derived words have a direction more specific than that, very general, root. The use of affixes makes it possible the word to pass from the state of root to the state of Thème (déclinable or conjugable according to the rules of inflection described hereafter).

Secondary derivation

Secondary derivation is similar (use of affixes) but share of a primary education derivative and not of the root. This mode of derivation allows inter alia passing from a male primary education derivative to its secondary derivative female correspondent. (e.g. DÂtr. - DÂtrî- )

Composition

The Composition makes it possible to join two independent topics which form then a made up Mot. The finale of the second member takes the flexional endings, the first member of made up appears in the form of its naked topic (without endings). The Paradigme S of the four kinds of composed in Sanskrit were taken again by modern linguistics to announce various modes of composition in other languages that the Sanskrit.

Made up Dvandva :
Made up karmadhâraya :
Made up tatpurus.a :
Made up bahuvrîhi (Bahuvrihi):

Words

The Lexicologie conceives each word (Lemme) like a radical (Lexème) surrounded by affixes. The sanskrite root is the basic element of the radical-lexeme. Mentality Védique did not separate the concepts of Meaning and Signifié. The words vedic were not conceived like labels affixed with objects. A " to be able dynamique" appears in the elocution of each word Sanskrit, infused in him by this fundamental syllable which we name root. This capacity is incarnated in an alive human body which pronounces powerful syllables modulated by the affixes which very give him the aspect of the words of a magic song tonic (such is the function of the chandas rig Veda). The written text does not have any capacity of evocation, it is only the graphic print of what is said, a kind of memorandum.

Nominal inflection

Désinences supplement the Thème S describes above, in order to constitute bent words being able to enter in context (samhitâ) a Phrase.

The category of name recovers in Sanskrit the names, Pronom S, nouns of number and adjectives. In Sanskrit a name is declined: he adds to the naked topic a Désinence which indicates the kind, the Nombre, and the Cas of the word made able to join a sentence.

the three kinds are: the male , the female , the Neutral .
the three numbers are: the Singular , the Duel, the Plural .
the cases are 8: the Personal , the Accusative , the Instrumental , the Dative, the Ablative , the Genitive, the Rental , the Vocative.
endings:

Verbal inflection

The construction of a verb is formed starting from its root. One notes a vocalic alternation of the root according to the kind, the number and time used. Three " system of conjugations exist: the present, the Aorist, the Perfect .

kinds: masculine, female, neutral.
numbers: Singular, Duel, Plural.
voices: credit, means, (the liability has a clean topic)
times of the system of the present: present, the Imperfect , the Future , the Injunctive , the Subjunctive , the Optative present, the Imperative present, the Participle present, the past participle, the Passive , the Causative , the Dénominatif, the Desiderative , the Intensive , the Absolutif, the Periphrastic future .
times of the system of the perfect one:
times of the system of the aorist:

Invariable words

Syntax

Use of the cases

Use of times and modes verbal

Nominal sentence

Appendices

Additional sciences

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