• the presence or proximity of water, and natural hydrographic systems ( Hydrological Linkages Criteria ), with for example;

• the value of protection of the grounds and fight against erosion and the streaming.

• timbered islands, if timbering is natural or “ near to nature ” is also regarded as good refuges for certain species because of a less disturbance. In the case of true islands, the criteria of insulation take a positive direction then, like in the case of the Inselberg S; on a case-by-case basis to study relative with the context
• the percentage of the forest in protected area (by type, stage of the succession and category of protection in % total forest surface);
• the rate of forest cover (by type) already converted or in the course of conversion with other uses (including truck driver);
• Surface and percentage of forests touched by a anthropic and/or natural disturbance;
• Complexity and heterogeneity of the forest structure;
• Many species tributary of the forest;
• Percentage of indigenous gasolines and percentage of these gasolines which would be threatened. Attention, it is an indicator relating to the biogeographic context. There are for example only 3 indigenous gasolines in all Iceland, against 7.780 indexed in 2005 in only Brazil (subspecies not included/understood). Moreover, the tropical forests comprise many gasolines, but some are dominant; In Center and West Africa, in South Asia and South-east and Central America, one naturally finds a very great diversity of species of trees (until nearly 300 different species per ha), whereas in moderated, boreal or sub-Saharan zone, the ten most frequent species of trees (in volume) relate to at least 50% of the forest biomass (in volume of tree).
  Les rarest species of the trees, especially those whose commercial value is high are often in danger of extinction for part of their line. FAO estimates that on average, 5% of the indigenous species of a country are vulnerable, in danger or critical danger of extinction.
• State of conservation of the species tributary of the forest.
• the indicators of the genetic variation are excluded from this examination because they normally require complex analyzes of laboratory (Namkoong and Al , 1996; but to also see Jennings and Al , 2001);
• Presence, mass, volume, quality (wood hard, tender, resinous, leafy) and distribution of the Deadwood, Middle Age of the trees, presence of large carnivores, beaver S or a great high content in mushrooms thus take new significances, sometimes opposed to those which were taught at the previous century in schools of sylviculture.
• the state of pollution of the forest (How for example to evaluate the quality of the forest which in the closed areas of Bélarus is restored naturally, but on grounds having received approximately 70% radioactive repercussions of the Catastrophe of Tchernobyl.

Legal classification

• National forest, domanial biological Reserve (RBD; integral or not)
• communal Forest
• private Forest
• Forest of protection

In Germany, it is:

• Markwald
• Landesherrlichkeit
• Säkularisierung
• Privatwald
• Hauberg
• Waldinteressentenschaft
• Kommunalwald
• Kirchenwald
• Landeswald
• Bundeswald

Management and exploitation of the forests

The forest was formerly exploited for wood, the Charcoal, the gathering, the pasture and hunting. Wood was generally discharged using horses, of oxen, buffaloes or of Indian elephants. In Central Europe, on the slopes, it sometimes was descended crossed on sledges (Schlitte). Generally, in fact the torrents and river transported the trunks to the rivers in rafts or by simple Flottage. Formerly, the trunks were cut by the Bûcheron S, then output by pit sawyers, before being carried to back of man or by horses to the ways. At the recent times, in fact sawmills actuated by the force of water allowed the cut of board in the forest or in the vicinity, before the trucks do not transport the trees to more distant sawmills starting from second half of the 20th century. In a general way the number of loggers and sawyers did not cease being reduced to the profit mechanization.

The modern Sylviculture aims to maintain or increase the potential of production of a forest, while preserving a balance sylvo-hunting when the game is a major economic resource and that the animals are numerous (In France, it is frequent that at least 50% income of a forest owner come from the products of hunting to big game.

Forest regeneration, i.e. the reproduction of the trees is done according to two approaches:

• by rejections (or suckers); this method exploits the capacity of many gasolines of leafy trees to be rejected starting from a stock. It is especially used for the Taillis.
• by seeds ; this method requires, at least for some gasolines a level of sufficient illumination of the ground, which justifies cuts of breaks for the ones and broad cuts for others.

One speaks about natural regeneration when the forester selects and preserves seed-bearer trees “ ” at the time of the cuts, so that the seeds present in the ground and fallen from seed-bearer can germinate and regenerate the forest. It is an effective and inexpensive solution when the gasolines present are well adapted to the biogeographic context and that the herbivores are not too numerous. For certain gasolines (oak by ex), whose fructification are not regular, the times of regeneration can be lengthened. It there has natural regeneration and continues with the approaches of the type Prosilva, promoting management step by step or in bouquets, without Coupe shaves.

Artificial regeneration corresponds to the situation where seedlings come from sowings made in Pépinière, or of grageonnages external with the piece, starting from selected seeds or trees (certified source), with the risk of loss of impact strength and biodiversity, even of introduction pathogenic not present into the forest. It is a mode of regeneration adapted to the mechanization of the forest management, which was strongly developed at the 20th century in the countries of north, but also in Australia and in certain tropical forests. The long-term benefit of this method are discussed, in particular for possible medical, landscape and environmental consequences on the forest.

The traditional mining methods in moderate forests are the following ones:

• simple Coppice : the rejections regularly are cut (the whole of the rejections resulting from a stock is called one cépée), which produces trees low-size, usable like stake or firewood (for the Châtaignier and the Acacia), used mainly today for the heating, but which fed formerly from industries like the glassmaking, the porcelain and the iron and steel industry.
• Coppice under grove : it is a forest exploited mainly in coppice, but to also provide sawlog, one lets come from the trees of franc-foot, i.e. resulting from sowing, various ages.
• regular Grove : in this type of forest all the trees result from sowing and have the same age, which gives to the adulthood Groves “cathedrals”. This type of treatment is relatively modern, and goes back in France from the time to Colbert which wanted to develop the production of wood for the frame of navy and in particular the masts. A famous example is the grove of oaks of Tronçais in the Allier.
• gardened Grove : it is a grove in which one finds trees at all the developmental stages. One exploits it by regularly taking part of the trees considered as ripe, but by preserving the protection of forest cover permanently. It is the traditional method, which was best preserved in mountain because it protects the grounds, the forest microclimate and limit at best the erosion and the landslides. It is also the forestry principle of Prosilva which associates a dimension Biodiversité to him (the grove heterogeneous and is mixed, out of gasolines and age groups, by preserving dead and senescent trees, considered necessary to the balance ecological forester).

According to the treatment used, and the gasolines, the time of “revolution”, i.e. the time run out between sowing and the cut, are variable but generally long, from 60 to 100 years for the coniferous trees (grown can be crossed as from 40 years), 150 years and more for the leafy trees (80-100 years for the red Chêne of America). Sylviculture is a business of several generations; only the populiculture (Poplar S) with one duration of revolution of approximately 20 years approaches agriculture.

A very small share of the nonprimary forests are not managed for the production of wood (ex: natural reserves, integral biological reserve, National parks, forests of protection, forests urban, or are the subject of a management restauratoire at end of protection of the water resource or grounds). The ecologist Japanese Akira Miyawaki was pioneer as regards Forêt of protection restored starting from local gasolines.

Recognized functions of the forest

Ecological function

• Tank of Biodiversity and habitats, as well as genetic resources and phytopharmacological, they for this reason studied and are sometimes classified in reserves biological, natural, national parks, etc).
• Functions écopaysagères: “cores” or “nodes” of the ecological Network, and sometimes biological Corridor for the Forest gallery, the forests linear, the Mangrove S, and the quickset hedges which can to it be attached.
• Protection against some Risk S natural (Avalanche S, Flood S, dryness, turning into a desert and elements of ecological Impact strength…).
• Quality of the air: in addition to the forest produces a significant part of oxygen in air on the continents, it has an extraordinary capacity to fix dust (like certain pollutants not dégradables), thanks in particular to foams, the lichens, the dew and the ground.
• Protection of the grounds (fight against erosion): the forest is a place of restoration of the ground if she is not overexploited.

• Function macro and micro climatic, thanks to the evapotranspiration and with the protection of canopée which attenuate the thermal shocks considerably, and dehydration due to the wind.
• Well of carbon, by fixing of carbonic gas in wood and the ground, at least for the moderated forests not subjected to the Fire S and for the tropical forests in phase of growth.

• Function aménitaire.
• the natural forest edges, eminently complex, have important functions écotoniales, in particular for the riverine forests and the mangroves.

Economic function

1. forest employment declines regularly relative with the tonnage extracted the forests which did not cease to him increasing, and this since the invention from the Tronçonneuse. It decreases on average by 1% per annum in the world (- 10% of 1990 to 2000), especially in Asia and Europe, whereas it increased slightly elsewhere. FAO charges this decline to the increases in productivity of the sector, and - for Eastern Europe - to the reorganization of the planned economies.
2. the average costs of the wood in the rough decreases : The average increase in the paid prices (barks or tree) was from 11 to 15% in the years 2000-2005 (source FAO, FRA 2005), but always remained lower than inflation; there is thus lowers average costs (in particular for tropical wood) on a world level, which does not exclude downstream and for the consumer from big rises from the Wood-energy where it becomes rare or after the " shocks pétroliers" and of wood écocertifiés or écosociocertifiés for which the offer remains much higher than the request, for FSC in particular.
3. the informal sector remains very badly known . Via the sale of game in particular, it is important.
4. an important part of the taking away and benefit is illegal , threatening of the gasolines and the theoretically protected and/or threatened species. The populations autochtones suffer from the Corruption and the pressures of the owners. 10 to 15 billion euros per annum would be thus bleached in the world, including close 3 billion € in the EU, coming from six areas where the production of wood is an important issue. Twenty Member States of the EU in 2006 are still suspectés to import illegal wood (Finland, Sweden and the United Kingdom at the head). The “network TRAFFIC ” of WWF and UICN on the International business of the Wild Species estimates that the legal and illegal trade of species would reach 15 billion euros of annual sales turnover (just behind the traffic of weapons and drug). A study of the British government estimated that the prohibition of illegal wood in Europe is possible and credible, with the existing tools and of control effective, with the profit of the legal and durable dies now confronted with an unfair competition. Tens of ONG whose Greenpeace and WWF since a score of years denounce illegal wood and promote credible and transparent écocertifications, as described by the group of ONG FERN, in an evaluation published in 2001.
5. Of new functions emergent; social, agrosylvicole, tourist, teaching, scientific and of protection environmental ( In 2005,11% of the forests of the world are declared by the states " assigned to the conservation of biological diversity " , this rate is in increase , but always does not correspond to a reality of ground). The function Puits of carbon seems to have to take importance. The economic importance of these new functions is badly evaluated, but could locally report more than the exploitation of wood.

Production of wood

• Firewood and Firewood, most important Use from the world but primarily in Africa and South America (and behind the destruction of the forest to extend the arable lands or of breeding);
• Wood of industry: pulpwood (Pulp paper), unwinding Plating, fiberboards, Packing;
• Sawlog: Frame, wood of mine, Cross-piece S of Railroad, Furnishing;
• Derived from wood.

Nonwoody forest products (PFNL)

According to FAO the PFNL are: “ is products of biological origin, others that wood, derived from the forests, other wooded grounds and trees except forests.

the PFNL can be collected in nature, or produced in forest plantations or perimeters of agroforestery, or by trees except forest.

Examples of PFNL include/understand products used as food and food additives (edible nuts, mushrooms, fruits, grasses, spices and condiments, plants aromatic, game meat), fibers (used in the construction industry, the pieces of furniture, clothing or the ustensils), resins, gums, and crop product and animal used for medicinal, cosmetic goals or culturels' .”

Here some example of PFNL:

• Mushroom S;
• Game S;
• Fruits of wood;
• Plant S medicinal and tinctorial;
• Tourism related to the forest.
• Fruit S

Functions social, symbolic systems and cultural

The spiritual and cultural value of the real or mythical forest is not disputed. The name of Brocéliande still evokes of it the druids and the magic. Nemeton was the Celtic word which meant at the same time sanctuary , and forest . Well after one forgot the Forest of Dodone Greeks, one continues to compare the pillars of the Gothic cathedrals with the trunks of a forest whose branches would be the arcs which support the vault. At last Century, many German loggers murmured a small prayer of excuse to the tree which they were going to cut. In India, the Sannyâsâ are withdrawn and are collected in forest, as some did it Ermite S Europeans. In China, the wooded tops almost always sheltered a temple. In Japan, the forest that reflect or symbolize in miniature certain gardens is crowned, as indicates it the Torii which marks sometimes its entry, like that of a temple. The tree of life is omnipresent in the myths founders of the forest countries, but also of the déforestés countries, with a tree of knowledge with ambiguous connotation in the Bible. The forest is often symbolically interpreted like connecting sky and ground, by the branches, the trunks and its roots. The forest is also the field of the Man wild, present in many myths of Western Europe or Asia; the wild man who is like the tree present in the heraldic European one The forest also makes fear; place of Nature where one loses oneself, place where one loses the children, where one meet the wolf, where gods, spirits and wild animals live, where the night is done blacker, last refuge of the wolves and the pursued bears. They is the places where out it law, goods (Robin of Wood) or malicious hid, although sometimes exclusively reserved for royal huntings. In Europe, as from the century of the lights and the French royal model, one got busy to humanize them, to name them and to split up them for better controlling them by squaring them of alleys and tailboards, then they were planted and “rationally” managed.
C' is locally a place of memory with the royal forests, the Forêt of war).
C' is finally and especially the place of life of the people of the forest, Amerindians, African, and of Southeast Asia in particular, where they survived. Secular place of initiation, refuge of the spirits, place of life and adventure for many people… places aménitaire of relaxation and discovered nature for others, the forest is recognized for all these functions by certain national laws and the écosociolabels FSC).

The majority of the populations and elected officials say themselves very attached to the idea of protection of remarkable trees, the forest and/or forest which protects, for reasons much broader than for the services than it returns like spaces relaxation and leisures or like place of family gathering of fruits and mushrooms.

Forest habitat of the Man; feeder and hunting

Enemies of the forest

Natural enemies

From a historical point of view, the Man had an ambiguous relation with the forest and in particular with the primary, sometimes protective forest or not developing to with it visible impact lasting of the millenia (in tropical zone, normis on certain islands), and often destructor in European, Asian moderate zone and in the Middle East, since several thousands of years. The primary forest continues to move back, and in Rio, as in Johannesburg the elected officials present did not succeed in validating the project of a world Convention for the forest , which remained only one declaration of intent, whose value and the legal consequences are much lower than those of the conventions on the biodiversity or the climate.

Climatic accidents

The effects can be felt years afterwards. The dryness generally worsens the effects of other the devastating agents, the such fires or insects. Thus, in 1976, the fires accentuated by the dryness burned more than 800 km ² in France.

In wintry time, the Gel is not generally to fear, except the extreme cases, as in 1956 in France or in 1985, when 30.000 maritime pines landais froze. The late frosts, are, they, vermin for the young seedlings. The Neige can be dangerous under certain conditions, when it forms sleeves around the branches, which end up breaking under the accumulated weight.

The storms, like that of December 1999 in Western Europe, cause the uprooting and the demolition of the trees, which form the “windfallen wood” or their break by the medium of the trunk, leaving places the “candlesticks from there” and on the ground the “windbreaks”. In France, the storm of 1999 thus cut down 146 million m ³ of wood.

Action of the man

The Deforestation

The Pollution

See also: Acid rain

After-effects of War

Forest fires

In France, on average 200 km ² of forest burn annually (for the years 2000). Some estimate that the fires are not a serious threat for the forests but rather an economic problem; in addition to the shortfall in products of exploitation (Sawlog and firewood), the prevention and the fire control cost on average 125 million euros per annum. Nevertheless fires with repetition on already parcelled out zones can start serious phenomena of erosion and impoverishment of the soil. Certain species (terrestrial tortoise for example suffered much from it).

It is difficult to draw an assessment from the action of the man on the forests: he does not summarize himself with harmful actions, because if the States did not stop deforestation nor not been able to agree to write and sign an international convention for the protection of the forests in Rio in 1992 or Johannesbourg in 2003, of many local programmes of studies and restoration of forests exist in the world, of which the model forests Canadian.

In Western Europe, the shape and the surface of the contemporary European forests result primarily from the action of the man, and it is usually allowed in the foresters whom they are managed in a durable way. Contrary to an idea spread, the surface of the French forest, after having strongly decreased until the end of the Middle Ages réaugmenté, including since the years 1900 (from approximately + 30%), but often thanks to commercial plantations of coniferous tree and poplars, less rich on the level of the Biodiversité and with a passing of the wetlands. The profit in surface did not slow down or did not compensate for the retreat of the birds, insects, Lichens and typically forest flowers, nor the massive retreat of the Bocage and the scattered trees since the years 1950. The trees tend in addition to being exploited increasingly young and the plantations are varied genetically little. Except locally, following the storms, the large Deadwood remains too rare to allow the survival of many species of invertebrates saproxylophages.

Forest and oxygen

Forests and Well of carbon

Moreover, certain forests can, at least temporarily to have a null assessment (mature tropical forest) or negative (in zone of recurring fires, or at the beginning of phase of growth), while indirectly contributing to enrich the rivers in nutrients (phosphorus, potassium, calcium, iron, etc and by the phenomena of acidification, humification, decolmatation and mineralization and structuring of the grounds) by thus offering a constant source by Nutriment S for the marine plankton downstream, plankton which produces 80  % of the oxygen that we breathe and which constitutes an important carbon well.

In theory, the Photosynthèse consumes Carbon dioxide and produced Dioxygène and Organic matter. Oxygen is consumed at the time of the Respiration plants themselves, animals of the forest and hidden biomass forest ground, like by the natural fires and moindrement by the natural oxidation of the chemical elements made available by the formation process of the grounds.

In phase of growth, after ten year of negative assessment if it is about a regeneration starting from a naked ground, the biomass increases regularly, mainly in the form of Cellulose and of Lignine. It stores also carbon in the form of Nécromasse and of biomass animal, microbial and fungic. In tropical zone, the majority of the forests push on poor grounds and acids where the humus is not formed and where nécromasse quickly is recycled or mineralized. The tropical forest in growth stores carbon, but it ends (after several centuries, even more than 1000 years) up arriving at a balance between primary production and decomposition of the deadwood. At this stage the forest seems to produce oxygen as much than than it consumes. Moreover, the emissions of methane related to the wood fermentation immersed or resulting from the activity of the Termite S still complex calculations of the emissions of Gaz to greenhouse effect. In moderate or cold zone, it goes from there differently with respectively the forest grounds (including the Tourbière S associated with certain forests) and the Pergélisol S which, in circumpolar zone, can store considerable quantities of carbon (in the form of Hydrate of methane).

Lastly, it to become and the lifespan of the methane emitted by the forest ecosystems are not yet well included/understood. It could be over-estimated or underestimated.

Forest and health

The patrimonial forest and community property

A quarter of France lives in the shade of the trees. Some are thousand-year-old and knew Gaulle hairy, the old worships. Townsmen and rural wish the conservation of a significant number of old tree. The first reserve of the forest of Fontainebleau was required by artists, and not by foresters.