Doping (sport)

The doping is the practice consisting in absorbing substances or using medical acts in order to increase its physical or mental capacities artificially (Hématocrite in blood, beats of the heart, self-confidence…).

Definition

One used the Anglo-Saxon term a long time " doping" , before the Committee of the scientific language does not impose a more French term in 1958.

The definition of doping is not as obvious as it appears to with it. Some examples make it possible to be convinced some:

the consumption of Stimulant S like the Coffee, the The, the sheet of Coke, etc is a general tradition at the human ones, precisely because of the improvement of the capacities.
the consumption of Vitamin S, rich foods, studied drinks has a direct effect on the performance.
the simple sporting drive is well an artifice aiming at a better performance.

The sporting authorities, and later the legislators in certain countries, thus had to draw up lists of products and medical techniques prohibited. Generally one can distinguish several factors which contribute to classify a substance or technique in the category of doping:

the first is the concept of “Triche”: the doped sportsman uses methods to which others do not have access. The result of the competition is thus distorted, which goes against the current image of the sport, a competition with equal footings where “the best gains”.
the second is the concept of physical integrity: the doped sportsman uses hazardous substances, classified often besides like narcotics. It is then a question of protecting the sportsman, who very often is ready to take ill-considered risks, or can be badly informed by its entourage on these risks. The doping products often have an effect dégénérescent on bodies like the heart, this last must work more and thus tires

more quickly

These criteria allow the constitution of a list of prohibited substances referred by the world code antidopage which now makes authority in all the countries.

In a strict sense, doping thus consists in consuming a product present on this list (or a related substance). In a broader direction, one will speak about doping control when one consumes a product with an aim of improving his performances even if this product does not form part of the list of the doping products (example: creatin).

History

Doping is a very old practice. The first proven modern case goes up with 1865: swimmers with Amsterdam. At the same time, the wine Mariani, in France, was advised with the sportsmen. It “was aromatized” with sheets of Coke. The first dead because of doping was it in 1885.

It is considered that doping was professionnalisé and generalized in certain sports at the end of the Années 1950 and at the beginning of the Années 1960 with the arrival of the Sympathicomimétique S, of products with hormonal activity like the growth hormone, or of the Corticoïde S. On the test of Athlétisme of the 100 meters, in the Sixties, the performances knows a jump before being stabilized in the years 70-80. But the performances redécollent starting from the Années 1980, that is to say at the time when EPO and of news Hormone masking S, Anabolisant S and products undetectable are put on the market. Following the death of Knud Enemark Jensen with OJ of Rome in 1960, the international federation of cycling carried out semi-official controls on the cyclists selected with the Jeux of Tokyo in 1964. These results were never revealed but, with Mexico City, at the time of the Olympic Games of summer of 1968 CIO officializes controls anti-doping and obliges the women to be subjected to tests of femininity. To avoid positive controls with OJ of Montreal, the Soviets install on the St. Lawrence, a boat laboratory, whose objective was to check the samples of urine of the Soviet sportsmen before engaging them in the competitions. It will be necessary to await 1989, so that the CIO sets up unexpected controls. The small percentage of positive controlled sportsmen shows the limits of controls and the possibility of using masking products. The growth hormones are not detected in the current tests of control anti-doping (2007).

In 1998, a scandal (Affaire Feasted) splashes the Tour de France. The welfare man of the cyclist team Feasted Willy Voet, to which Richard Virenque belongs is challenged at the border in possession of 500 amounts of doping and amazing products including 235 bulbs of EPO. Bruno Roussel, sport director of the team, acknowledges the existence of a “concerted management of the supply of the runners doping products”. The general public then discovers the extent of these doping practices. In the publication of the research (2000) undertaken on the frozen samples of urine of the runners of the Tour de France 1998, the national laboratory of tracking of doping estimates that “it is highly probable that we could find the traces of a catch of EPO on a high number of the 102 samples, perhaps even on all”. Following this business, controls are reinforced and France obtains a more constraining law anti-doping.

Several businesses of doping will follow in particular in Italy with Giro 2001, the lawsuit of the Juventus, the lawsuit of the doctor Michele Ferrari (to advise medical and friend of Lance Armstrong) or the business of the widows of Calcio and with the the United States with the Balco business (see Tim Montgomery).

It is now almost proven (2005) that Lance Armstrong was under EPO in 1999 (retrospective study of urines).

Today, associated with unexpected controls, the longitudinal follow-up of the sportsmen seems to be the most effective weapon to fight against doping and its masking practices, since it makes it possible either to detect the doping products, but an abnormal modification of the physiology of the sportsman.

Doping of state

After the fall of the Berlin Wall and the opening of the files of Stasi, one discovers that GDR (German Democratic republic) had developed a vast program of doping of its sportsmen. The injections of Testosterone and Anabolisant S were a current practice, even systematic, including in children.

Following the business of bleaching of positive controls by the American federation of athletics revealed by the case of Jerome Young in 2003, the American Olympic committee recognized into 2003 that, since the years 80,24 athletes gained Olympic medals after a positive control left without continuation. He is necessary to add to it the nine positive controls mysteriously disappeared at the time of the Olympic Games of summer of 1984 to Los Angeles.

In the Years 1990, the results of the Chinese in swimming surprise. About thirty Chinese swimmers were controlled positive. The discovery, the January 8th 1998, by the Australian customs of Somatotropine (undetectable growth hormone) in the luggage of the swimmer Yuan Yuan reinforces the doubts about possible a new doping of State in China.

Products and doping techniques by required effect

The doping practices are generally complementary and associated the ones with the others increasing occasion consequently the risks and the unknown factors as for the long-term effects of doping on health.

To modify morphology

the growth hormones make it possible to exploit the morphology of the sportsman in the disciplines where the size is determining (basketball and volley ball for the sportsmen of big size and cycling and haltérophilie for those of small size). In GDR the growth hormone was managed very early in the training of the sportsman (at the 14 years age in the case of Petra Schneider, gold medal-holder of the 400 m 4 strokes in 1980).

To increase the force and the muscular power

The interest of a more important muscular mass seems obvious: the power of the sportsman will be larger, like to a certain extent its load-carrying capacity.

Families of products allowing to increase the muscular mass:

Steroids anabolics (example: the THG (Tétrahydrogestrinone) produced by the Balco laboratory);
the Créatine does not have any anabolic effect.

She is not regarded as a doping product, she is not prohibited by the sporting federations, and is on sale free in the principal European countries, like in the USA. She increases the muscular force in a temporary way. She is not stored by muscular fabrics and thus does not support the increase in the muscular mass. Often proposed by the sportsmen it proves to be one “masking media” practical good to dissimulate an anabolic catch and to justify a suspect increase in muscular mass.

combination of three amino-acids (Methionine, Arginine, Glycine).
the growth hormones make it possible to optimize muscular the weight ratio/power according to the sporting disciplines. For example, a cyclist seeks to limit his catch of weight at the time of catches repeated of growth hormones.
the Grossesse was even a method used by the Soviet gymnastes to profit from the hormonal climate of the beginning of pregnancy. These young people gymnastes underwent a IVG after the test.

To improve oxygenation

the Salbutamol is very much used in all the sports: approximately 70% of the sportsmen of OJ of Lillehammer, in 1994, had a doctor's certificate which authorized them to take this drug in order to look after to them Asthme and (just as 87 % of the sprint eurs with OJ of Atlanta, whereas there is only 2,7% of asthmatic in the global population); one finds the same proportions in many other sports, of which the Cyclisme. It makes it possible to improve the passage of oxygen in blood, and thus to bring some more to the muscles.

the training course in altitude makes it possible to increase the number of red globules in blood and, consequently, ensures a better oxygenation. However, this beneficial effect is lost quickly with the return at a normal altitude. It is possible to take blood during the stay in altitude or of a cure of EPO. Blood is stored until the course of the sporting tests. At this time there, it is transfused with the sportsman so that it profits again from the advantage of a greater number of red globules in blood. Another technique consists in placing the sportsman in a box hypobare to recreate the conditions of altitude artificially and to thus stimulate the production of red globules.

EPO : the érythropoïétine is a natural hormone stimulating the production of red globules, produced by the kidneys. The effect of increase in the number of Hématie S is measured by a rise in the rate of Hémoglobine and rate of Hématocrite in blood. A high quantity of oxygen conveyers makes it possible to increase the contribution out of O ₂ with fabrics. The disadvantage lies in the outrageous increase in the Hématocrite, being able to cause cardiovascular complications. It was intensively used in cycling - and probably the whole of the sports of endurance - in the Nineties.

PFC (Perfluocarbone) is an oxygen conveyer which does not increase the rate of Hématocrite but this product is very dangerous. It was however used by the Team Feasted.

the modified animal hemoglobin marketed since 1998, does not increase either the rate of hématocrite and has the advantage of functioning as of absorption without increasing the viscosity of blood. That does not decrease therefore the risks of pulmonary or cerebral oedemas and serious hemorrhages.

the homologous transfusion consists in transfusing the blood of a donor to the blood group and rhesus compatible. This method is easily detectable.

the transfusion autologist is based on the same principle that the homologous transfusion, but uses the blood of the doped person who beforehand was withdrawn and frozen for her storage. There does not exist in 2007 pas de method of test making it possible to detect doping. Stored blood requires a very heavy equipment because it is necessary to pass blood in a Centrifugeuse in order to eliminate the Sérum from exploitable blood.

To increase the concentration

Amphetamines, alcohol, béta-blocking is used to overcome the stress of the competition or to increase the concentration of the sportsman.

To exceed itself

It is in the class of the Narcotique S that one finds the products to forget the pain, certain products as the Héroïne belonged to the “Belgian Pot”.

The prohibited substances most known are the Héroïne, the Morphine and the Méthadone.

to overcome the feeling of tiredness:

Euphoriant S (Cocaine, Cafeine, Amphetamines…)
the cardiorespiratory antalgic S, Analeptique S
the Insulin.

To control the rate/rhythm day before-sleep

The military use of the amphetamines is well-known, but this use can also be useful in the disciplines asking for an important maintenance of vigilance (Paris-Dakar, race of veil as a recluse…). They can be associated with the Benzodiazépine S to facilitate the sleep after the test.

To lose weight

The Diurétique S make it possible to quickly lose weight by the urine. That is very useful in the sports where returns in account the categories of weight as the Boxe or when this one is a handicap (Aviron, horsemanship). The diurétiques ones are also of very good masking: they make it possible to decrease the concentration of the doping products detected in the urines. But their use is not without risk: cardiac problems, renal, dehydration, cramps…

Masking products

Ventoline ® (Salbutamol), in addition to its doping virtues, masks the amphetamines.

The Probénécide, used into therapeutic as uricosuric substance, supports the elimination of many substances. Certain large champions cycles (Pedro Delgado, leader of the turn of France in 1988) as Romain Poinsot in 1990 escaped the sanction, because this product was not prohibited by their federation.

Moreover, Propecia, is also used to mask the catch of steroids. However, its true utility is to prevent the fall of hair caused by baldness. It was proven that the goalkeeper of LNH (Hockey), Jose Theodore, took some. He however had an authorization of a doctor and league.

Others

Some Drogue S are also considered from a legal point of view as of the products doping even if the benefit on the physical capacities are null. Thus certain sportsmen are positive with control antidopage after having smoked of the Cannabis. Even if consumption is prohibited to the sportsmen for reasons morals, their releasing effect can, to a certain extent, doping being.

The consumption of alcohol is also prohibited in the competitions of aeronautics, cars, Karate, motorcycle racing, of speedboat, modern pentathlon and of shooting to the arc.

Effects on health

Doping endangers the health of doped. Several racing cyclists who acknowledged to have taken EPO, told that their welfare man awoke them the night to make them make exercise. The objective is to avoid an cardiac arrest because of an side effect of the doping product. Indeed, the improvement of the oxygenation of the muscles is obtained thanks to an increase in the number of the red globules, which thickens blood. When the heart, at rest, slows down, blood becomes less and less fluid, and can stop the heart.

In its work doping in question , Jean-François Bourg indicates that the life expectancy of a professional player of American football did not exceed 55 years in the Années 1990. According to Doctor Jean-Pierre de Mondenard, who studied the medical files of the participants of the turn of France since 1947, for the runners the cardiac risk of death before 45 years is five times superior with the average.

The Boxe ur Bob Hazelton had to be made cut down by the two legs.

See the detailed article Consequences of doping on health

Famous cases and legal aspects

Evolution of the legislation antidopage

November 2007: the world Code antidopage envisages Amendes

The world Code antidopage revised, officially adopted in closure Conference of Madrid on November 17th, 2007, envisages the possibility of inflicting financial sanctions with the sportsmen convinced of doping, according to Richard Young, lawyer writer of this text. Each international federation or national organization antidopage will be able, at the end of the article 10.12 of the new Code, to integrate in its payment the possibility of inflicting of such sanctions and their methods. However, the “Amendes” will not be able to in no case to be “considered as a reason to reduce one period of suspension or another sanction” - as a cancellation of result -, envisages the revised version of the world Code. The imposition of financial sanctions was one of the requests of the sportsmen themselves and the International Olympic committee (CIO).

Business of the directory of doping

See also: Business of the directory of doping

Cycling

1967 : Tom Simpson dies during a stage of the Tour de France, following the massive absorption of amphetamines.
1967: Jacques Anquetil refuses to be subjected to a control antidopage following its record of the hour. This one will not be approved.
1975: the multiple world champion of cyclocross, Eric de Vlaeminck, is interned in a psychiatric service, undoubtedly victim of the doping products consumed during his career.
1978 : the Belgian Michel Pollentier, winner with Alpe d' Huez, is excluded from the Tour de France to have tried to dissimulate his doping.
1988 : Pedro Delgado, leader of the Tour de France, is declared positive with the Probénécide, a masking product making it possible to dissimulate the catch of steroids anabolics. The runner manages not to be excluded and gains the Turn.
1996 : Bjarne Riis, winner, admits into 2007 being doped for the period concerned. Erik Zabel also recognized a doping with EPO.
1998 : the Affaire Feasted pushes the team of Richard Virenque to leave the Tour de France.
1999: Marco Pantani is excluded from the Tour of Italy the day before the arrival, following a blood control showing a rate of hématocrite much higher than the authorized limit of 50%. In 2001, doping still catches up with it. It is suspended 6 months to have held in its room an insulin syringe during the Tour of Italy.
1999 : Lance Armstrong is controlled positive with the Corticoïde S. It presents a doctor's certificate has posteriori to escape the sanctions.
2002 : the wife of the runner classified third at the conclusion of the Tour de France 2002, the Lithuanian Published Rumšas, is taken by the French customs with a trunk full with doping products. The business Rumšas is judged in France in November 2005 (this same runner, which denies any doping with the turn of France, will be controlled positive with the turn of Italy).
2004: the Affaire Cofidis reveals once again a doping organized within a professional team. This business implies in particular Philippe Gaumont.
2004: at the time of the Olympic Games of Athens then at the time of the Turn of Spain, Tyler Hamilton is the first positive cyclist controlled for blood transfusion.
2005: Roberto Heras, quadruple winner of the Turn of Spain (2000, 2003, 2004, 2005), is controlled positive at the time of the 20th stage of Vuelta.
2006: In June, the Spanish police force stopped five people of which the sport director of the team cyclist Liberty Seguros for participation in a vast network of doping concerning of many teams and many cyclists in sight (see Affaire Puerto). Several serious applicants with the Tour de France 2006 whose Ivan Basso and Jan Ulrich was forced to withdraw itself. One can also quote other great names, such as Joseba Beloki, Oscar Sevilla, Francisco Mancebo, Angel Casero, Igor González de Galdeano or Tyler Hamilton.
2006 : Four days after the arrival of the Tour de France in Paris, the results of a test carried out one week before, give a positive runner to the Testostérone S. It acts of the winner and yellow jersey, American Floyd Landis.
2007: The Tour de France 2007 is sullied by the revelation with the case with doping with the German runner Patrik Sinkewitz at the time of a drive in June 2007 and revelation of exclusion by its national federation of the Danish Michael Rasmussen. It, thereafter, will be requested by its team to leave the Tour de France 17th the stage day before whereas it was provisional Yellow jersey Turn (the organization of the Turn, prevented since several days of the irregularity of its situation, not having done anything). The Kazakh Alexandre Vinokourov, 33 years, leader of the Astana team, was controlled positive with the transfusions homologous Saturday, July 21 at the conclusion of the against-the-watch individual with the Tour de France which it gained in Albi. Following the positive control of its runner, the formation Astana of which he was the leader decided to leave the Turn. The Italian runner, Cristian Moreni of the team Cofidis was also controlled positive but with the Testostérone at the time of the 11th stage of the turn. The Cofidis team is thus not leaving for the continuation the stages.

Athletics

sprinteuse the Marita Koch, holder of many world records and gold medals Olympic between 1977 and 1987 is convinced of massive doping after opening of the files of East Germany. She admits to be herself doped but will be relieved of none of its titles.
1988: the Canadian sprinter Ben Johnson is controlled positive with the Anabolisant S after his victory finally of the 100 meters of the OJ of Seoul. He is excluded, its world records are not approved and he is suspended 4 years. He is always suspended today after multiple attempts at return in competition.
1992: sprinteuse allemande Katrin Krabbe is controlled positive with the Clenbuterol. She will be then bleached, the samples of urine having been handled without her knowledge. The business will never be cleared up.
1999: the Olympic champion of the 100 meters 1992, the British Linford Christie is controlled positive with the Nandrolone and is suspended for 2 years.
2003: the former director of 1991 to 2000 of the American Olympic committee of control anti-doping ( USOC ) reveals into 2003 that hundreds of athletes of the United States were controlled positive between 1988 and 2000, but which it were covered by the USOC. It produces many parts attesting its charges, including copies of the letters of the Committee which warned the sportsmen of their positive control and their bleaching. The international federation was not informed of these cases of doping. Among the accused athletes, 19 American Olympic champions, and in particular Carl Lewis. More titrated athletes had been tested positive with three recoveries, including in 1988, before its departure for the Olympic Games of Seoul. When the scandal bursts, he recognizes the facts but pleads inadvertency.
2003: the world champion of the 100 and the 200 meters, American the Kelli White, is recognized guilty of doping and déchue of her titles.
2004: The Greek athletes Konstantinos Kenteris and Ekaterini Thanou give up taking part in the Olympic Games of Athens a few days before the tests. The two sportsmen were shown to be itself withdrawn from several controls anti-doping.
2004: The Balco business, of the name of an American pharmaceutical laboratory, brings to the suspension of several large athletes like the recordman of the 100 meters of the time Tim Montgomery and Olympic champion Marion Jones triples it.
2006: Justin Gatlin, recordman of the world of the 100 meters, announced the positive on July 29th to be controlled “with the Testostérone or the one of its precursors” in April previous at the time of a relay disputed in Kansas.
2006: Latifa Essarokh was controlled positive on July 25th, where it had beaten the record of France of the 1500 meters. It had just progressed from 5 seconds in one season.
2006: the August 14th, the shortly after the fence of the Championships of Europe disputed with Gothenburg, the Swedish police force announces the discovery of “two bags containing of the bulbs, the syringes, the catheters as well as material of blood transfusion”. The bags were discovered the last day of the championships, Sunday August 13rd, in a dustbin located near two hotels having lodged several delegations of athletes of which Russians during the competition. In addition, according to the popular newspaper Swedish Dagens Nyheter , the found products carried Russian inscriptions.
2007: Marion Jones admits having gained his medals of Sydney under the influence of doping.

Football

1991 : Diego Maradona is controlled positive with the Cocaïne, with the éphédrine in 1994, then again with the Cocaïne in 1997.
1997: five French footballers - David Garcion (Lille), Vincent Guerin (PSG), Dominique Arribagé (Toulouse), Antoine Sibierski (Auxerre), Cyrille Pouget (Le Havre) - are declared positive with the Nandrolone.
1998: the players of Parma are suspected of being itself doped with EPO.
2002: two leaders of the Juventus are put in examination for “inoculation of harmful substances”. Several players of the club, whose Zinedine Zidane and Didier Deschamps, admits having taken Créatine. The investigation will prove also the use of EPO and blood transfusions, but in 2005 the lawsuit will be concluera by a withdrawal of case, the Italian law not condemning doping at the time of the facts.

Tennis

1997 : Mats Wilander and Karel Novacek was suspended three months for use of Cocaïne.
1998: Petr Korda was suspended one year after being controlled positive with the Nandrolone.
2001: Guillermo Coria was controlled positive with the Nandrolone. Its suspension, initially fixed at 2 years, was brought back to 3 months, after it could prove that ingestion was accidental.
2004: John McEnroe, old world number 1 of tennis, acknowledges to have taken during six years of the steroids anabolics.
2005: Sesil Karatantcheva, then 15 years old, was controlled positive with the Nandrolone during Roland Garros; its defense consisted in putting this rate abnormally high on the account additional food taken during its pregnancy; the argument was not retained, and it was suspended 2 years.
the finalist of the Roland Garros, Mariano Puerta, 13th world, was condemned on December 21st, 2005, at 8 years of suspension by the the FIT, sorrow brought back to 2 years in call. He had already been condemned for positive control to the Clenbuterol in 2003.
2007: Old number 1 world Martina Hingis puts a term at its career following a positive control with the Cocaïne.

Rugby

2006 : at the conclusion of a match from Super the 14 between his club of the NSW Waratahs and Brumbies, the Australian winger Wendell Sailor (37 selections in national team) undergoes a positive control with the Cocaïne. The Australian Federation of Rugby broke its contract and suspended it for two years. The player put a term at his career.

Wrestling

In 2007, the World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) reveals a list of 16 all-in wrestlers implied in doping. The list reveals that these 16 all-in wrestlers doped themselves between 2003 and February 2007. The list also reveals how they were doped:

Chavo Guerrero : Somatropine, Nandrolone and Anastrozol between April 2005 and May 2006.
Gregory Helms : Genotropine and Nandrolone between November 2003 and February 2007.
Randy Orton : Somatropine, Nandrolone and Stanozolol between September 2004 and February 2007.
John Morrison: Somatropine, Anastrozol, Testosterone, Stanozolol and Gonadothropine Chorionique between June 2006 and February 2007.
Mr. Kennedy: Anastrozol, Somatropine and Testostérone between October 2006 and February 2007.
Funaki : Somatropine in March 2006.
Charlie Haas : Nastrozol, Somatropine, Stanozolol, Nandrolone and Gonadothropine Chorionique between August 2006 and January 2007.
Umaga : Somatropine de Juillet in September 2006.
William Treat: Stanozolol, Somatropine, Genotropine, Anastrozol between November 2004 and November 2006.
Edge : Somatropine, Genotropine and Stanozolol September 2004 in February 2007.
King Booker

Chris Masters
Santino Marella
Simon Dean
Eugene

Ten all-in wrestlers were seen by the president Mr. McMahon. All will be suspended 1 month except four all-in wrestlers. An all-in wrestler will be suspended 3 months for suspension repeats, and two returned. both returned are Simon Dean (returned on August 31st) and Eugene (returned on September 2nd). For both returned, only Eugene still catchait. Simon Dean was in the direction. For the fourth, Gregory Helms, it cannot be suspended because it is wounded and its return on the boxing ring and is awaited for only July 2008!

To dissimulate the business it suspends the all-in wrestlers implied by making them pass for casualty, by beating the champions implied in the business or not to reveal them in the statement Unforgiven 2007 so that their suspension take effect just after September 1st. Thus, the three more famous all-in wrestlers of RAW, Triple H, Jeff Hardy and John Cena undertook " blessé" the powerful Umaga champion (Jeff Hardy takes again the title and Triple H the attack wildly later in the evening) and their General Manager William Regal (John Cena the attack wildly after the advertisement of its match against Randy Orton in Unforgiven 2007).

With ECW it is Punk CM which it is charged to beat the champion John Morrison.

Media effects on the sports concerned

Doping concerns mainly the high level, professional sportsmen but also amateurs. These last decades, doping shows through in the media at the time of large scandales : elimination of runners known at the time of the Tour de France cyclist, three Footballer S dead of Cardiac arrest in a few months at the end of 2003 and at the beginning of 2004, etc

In addition to the untimely deaths the developed young graduates or diseases (see the female athletes of old GDR), these scandals cause the fear of the sponsors of the great events sportifs : these companies ready to invest large sums so that their mark appear as much as possible, do not want however that their name is associated with illegal practices.

Not to frighten the sponsors, the “Law of silence” is essential in the teams and the media. The sporting authorities are also complices :

the federations of many sports give up almost controls, that of the Base-ball authorizing it even until little time ago, without speaking about the Culturisme.
the federations are curiously blind when they do not notice the arcades projecting sourcilières and the abnormally strong chin of certain sportsmen, signs impregnation with the Growth hormone.
it was necessary to await the intervention of the police force and the customs to the turn of France and Italy so that the scandal of doping in cycling bursts at the great day.
with the Moscow Olympic Games, in 1980, like with the Football world cup of 1998 in France, it there have no case of recognized doping.
when a case of doping is too visible, the federations prefer to draw aside the sportsman without waves after a victory (brutal withdrawal of Florence Griffith Joyner in full glory and without never to be officially controlled positive leave perplexed).
a population of 24 000 Italian footballers has a rate of 45 SLA (amyotrophic side sclerosis, fatal disease), against 0,61 awaited cases.
the control of Hématocrite accepts a rate of 50 %, whereas the majority of people have 45 % (the majority of the controlled cyclists have nearly 50, but this rate increases with the effort). Moreover, one leaves time to the sportsman between the arrival of the race and the control of hématocrite, which allows him perfuser 1/2 liter of water, from where a dilution of 10 % of sound hématocrite, which goes down again then from 55 to 50 %. Hématocrites: man 42 to 54% woman 37 to 47% (values of reference of the center of the contests of the boarding school, with the top there is pathological values, with the top of 50 it are no health issues but they are abnormal values)

Statistics

In cycling, one of the rare sports where controls are frequent, nearly 1000 professional runners having been implied in businesses of doping were indexed. Since the end of the Years 1990, one counts on average more than 60 cases each year. Few comparisons are possible with other sports, the follow-up not being the same one. To gain a “modern” turn, it is necessary to produce 6,7 Watts/kilo of weight of body.

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