Channel of Panamá - SpeedyLook encyclopedia

The channel of Panamá is a important channel crossing the Isthme of Panamá in Central America, connecting the Pacific Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean. Its construction was one of the most difficult projects of Ingénierie ever undertaken. Its impact on the maritime trade was considerable since the Navire S did not need any more to travel by the Cape Horn and the Passage of Drake to the southern point of the South America. A going ship of New York to San Francisco by the channel traverses 9 500 kilometers, less than half of the 22 500 kilometers of a voyage by Cape Horn.

Although the concept of a channel with Panamá goes back to the beginning of the 16th century, the first attempt at construction began in 1880 under the French impulse . After this attempt had failed, the work was completed by the the United States of America and the channel opened in 1914. The construction of the 77 kilometers of the channel was strewn with problems, including diseases like the Paludisme and the Yellow fever and of the landslides. One estimates at 27 500 the number of workmen who perished during construction.

Since its opening, the channel gained an enormous success and continues to be a strategic point of passage for navigation. Each year the channel allows the passage of more than 14 000 ships transporting more than 203 million tons of cargo. Until 2002, a total of 800 000 ships had passed by the channel. Work of widening of the channel was launched in September 2007 and should be finished in 2014, then making it possible ships even larger to borrow the channel.

Description

The channel of Panamá connects the Golfe of Panamá, in the Pacific Ocean, with the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantique. The form of the Isthme of Panamá, which curves, makes that the channel runs out in fact of south-east (since the Pacific) towards the North-West (in direction of the Atlantic). To avoid any confusion, the authorities of the channel classify the transits into two catégories : Northern direction (of the Pacific towards the Atlantic) and direction Southern (of the Atlantic towards the Pacific).

The channel can accommodate different boats sizes, energy of the Yacht S deprived until large tradind ships. The boats having the biggest acceptable size in the channel are indicated under name Panamax ; a growing number of ships exceeds this size, they are called post-Panamax . On average a crossing of the channel by a cargo liner takes approximately nine hours. In 2005,14 011 ships borrowed the channel representing a total tonnage of 278,8 million tons is an average of 40 ships per day.

Provision

The channel consists of two Lac S artificial, several improved and artificial channels, and three whole of lock S. an additional artificial lake, the Lac Alajuela, acts like tank for the channel. A ship going of the Pacific to the Atlantic carries out the course suivant :

since the buoys which mark of it the entry in the gulf of Panamá to the locks of Miraflores, the ships traverse 13,2 km in the channel, passing under the Pont of Americas ;
the system of locks of Miraflores makes 1,7 km length (by including the walls of approach), with uneven of 16,5 m to semi-marée ;
the artificial lake of Miraflores makes 1,7 km and is 16,5 m above the level of the mer ;
the lock of Pedro 1,4 km length Miguel is the last part of the rise with uneven of 9,5 mètres ;
the Coupe Strapping man makes 12,6 km from length at an altitude of 26 meters, and passes under the Pont Centenary ;
the river Chagres (Río Chagres), natural river improved by a stopping on the lake Gatún, traverses 8,5 km towards the west to throw itself in the lake Gatún ;
the Lake Gatún, an artificial lake formed by the Stopping Gatún, transports the ships on 24,2 km ;
the locks of Gatún comprise three stages for an overall length of 1,9 km and bring back the ships to the level of the mer ;
a channel of 3,2 km forms the approach towards the locks on the Atlantique side; ;
the Bay Limón (Bahía Limón), an immense natural port, gets on standby a Mouillage for the ships of transit and makes 8,7 km to the external dam.

The total transit since the entry of the channel Pacifique side to the dam on the Atlantique side is of 76,9 km. The maximum Marnage of the Pacific is of 6,55 m (+3,35 m with high tide and -3,20 m with low tide) ; the uneven one in Miraflores thus varies from 13,1 m to the Pleine sea to 19,7 m with the low tide. Atlantic side, marling does not exceed 60 cm. The mean level of the sea on the Pacifique side is on average 20 cm higher than Atlantique side.

The Limón bay on the Atlantique side is a damping protected by a digue ; however, its capacity is not adapted any more to the number and the size of the ships using the channel, and of many ships wait damping in-outside bay. Damping Pacifique side open but is protected by topography from the gulf.

Locks

The most spectacular parts of the channel are the lock S. Those 33,53 m are broad and comprise a length usable of 304,8 Mr. the depth available varies but the depth minimum is of 12,55 m in the southern part of the locks Pedro Miguel. These dimensions determine the maximum size of the ships, the Panamax . All the locks of the channel go by paires : two parallel series of locks are on each of the three sites, authorizing in theory the passage of the ships simultaneously in the two directions. However, the large ships cannot pass each other at high speed in the Gaillard cut; ; in practice, the traffic is alternate and the two ways of the locks are used only in one direction at the same time.

Each room is filled with 101 000 cubic meters of eau ; water enters by gravity by a pipe network under each room. The ships are tractor drawn by small Locomotive S called mulas (either “ mules ”, according to these animals used traditionally to draw from the Barge S) on Rail S laid out on the walls of the locks. The smallest boats are moored by mooring ropes held with the hand.

Lakes Gatún and Alajuela

Crossing of the channel

There exist several means of crossing the channel. In the south, Peaceful side, the Pont of Americas is a major road bridge, open in 1962 ; during many years, it was the only means of crossing the channel. Before its construction, the road traffic borrowed a ferry from this same place. More in north, on the level of the Miraflores locks, one finds a bridge revolving road and railway. Opened in 1942, it can function only in the absence of sea traffic, and is seldom used now. Into the same place, a small road bridge turning is integrated in the structure of the écluse ; it is used also little.

The means of the most recent crossing is the Pont Centenary above the Gaillard cut, in the north of the locks Pedro Miguel. Finished in 2004 and opened with the traffic in 2005, it comprises six ways for the cars. Lastly, a last swing bridge is integrated into the Gatún locks, usable only when the locks are closed, and with a very low capacity.

In addition to public crossings, the employees assigned to the channel use the doors of the locks when they are closed.

History

The first mention of a channel through the isthmus goes up with 1534, when Charles Quint suggested that a channel with Panamá would help the active voyage of the ships to the Peru and in Ecuador.

Being given the strategic importance of the Central America as a fine ground portion separating two large oceans, other forms of commercial links were tried. The Projet Darién was tried by the kingdom of Scotland in 1698 to create a road of trade on ground, but was abandoned because of the inhospitable conditions in 1700. Finally, the railroad of Panamá fur built and opened in 1885. This bond on ground facilitated the trade largely and constituted an important component of the establishment of the channel.

A sea route between the oceans was always seen like the ideal solution, and the idea of a channel was revived on several occasion, and by several routes : a channel with the Nicaragua was considered several times. Finally, following the success of the Suez Canal, the French, under the direction of Ferdinand de Lesseps which had carried out this last, began the construction of a channel to the sea level (without locks) in Panamá on January 1st 1880. In 1893, after a substantial work, the French project was overcome by the successive epidemics of Yellow fever and the difficulty in domesticating Rio Chagres which regularly knew risings devastators during the rain season. The great number of deaths was one of the independent factors of the échec : although no official data is available, an estimate gives a figure of 22 000 workmen died for the principal period of construction (1881-1889). A fine accounting scandal put at the project.

The the United States, at the time of Theodore Roosevelt, repurchased the equipment and the building sites in France which they started again in 1904, after having caused the secession of Panamá compared to the Colombia, in exchange of control on the canal zone, declared by the Traité Hay-Bunau-Varilla. An important investment was carried out to eliminate the diseases from the place, in particular the Paludisme and the Yellow fever, whose causes had just been identified. The construction of a channel in altitude, including locks, could start. The channel was officially open the August 15th 1914 with the transit of the cargo liner Ancon .

The labor costs were 388 million dollars of the time.

The medical projections made it possible to reduce deaths during this part of construction. However, 5 609 workmen died for the period 1904-1914, bringing the total to 27 500 dead approximately.

In the years 1930, the water provision seemed a medium-term problem ; the Madden stopping was built on the Chagres river, upstream of the lake Gatún. The stopping, finished in 1935, created the lake Alajuela, containing an additional water reserve for the channel. In 1939, the construction of a new whole of locks began in order to allow the passage of American warships in construction or design. Work lasted several years but the project was cancelled after the Second world war.

After the war, the United States kept the control of the channel and the zone surrounding it became a ground for dispute with Panamá. Many Panamanians had the feeling which the zone belonged legitimately to Panamá ; protests coeds burst, the zone was fitted latticework on and the reinforced military presence. The negotiations started in 1974 and had as a result the treaty of Torrijos-Carter : signed by Jimmy Carter and Omar Torrijos the September 7th 1977, it began the handing-over of the channel in Panamá. Although discussed in the United States, the treaty led to complete control by Panamá the December 31st 1999. The channel is now directed by the Autorité of the Channel of Panamá.

Statute of the channel

Although reassigned in Panamá, the channel is always regarded as an inland water land by the United States;: it is thus envisaged in the treaty of retrocession that the ships sailing under American flag take precedence of passage over the others.

The channel of Panamá is, according to the American Society off Civil Engineers ( the American association of the engineers in civil engineering ), one of the Seven wonders of the modern world.

In 2003, the annual turnover of the channel exceeded the amount of a billion dollar for a benefit of the third. The project of widening, from total costs of eight billion dollars, making it possible to accommodate buildings twice larger than those which forward today, comes to be subjected to a referendum of the citizens. According to the preliminary results of the electoral Court, the “ oui ” carries it with 79% of the voices (10/23/06). Currently 5 % of the world maritime trade passes by the channel of Panamá.

Right-of-way

The right-of-way in the channel is decided by the Authority and is based on the type of ship, the size and the type of cargo. Those brought back in 2006 1,4 billion dollars.

For the Container ships, the rights depend on the number of EVP (standardized number of Conteneur S). At May 1st 2005, the right was of 42$ by EVP, having to go up to 49$ on May 1st, 2006 and 54$ on May 1st, 2007 ; container ships Panamax can transport until 4 000 containers. The rights are reduced for the ships light S.

The majority of the other ships must pay a right according to their tonnage, expressed in “ tons ” correspondent with volumes of 100 cubic feet (2,8 m ³). Calculation itself is relatively complex. In 2006, this right is of 2,96$ for the first 10 000 let us tons , 2,90$ by your for the 10 000 let us tons following, and 2,85$ by your then. As for the container ships, the tax is reduced for the light ships.

The smaller ships pay a tax depending their length. In 2006, this tax is de : The ever highest tax paid to date was to it the May 30th 2006 by the Porte-conteneurs Maersk Dellys , and rose with 249 165,00 $. Least low tax of 36 hundred , was paid by the American adventurer Richard Halliburton which traversed the channel with the stroke in 1928. The average tax is of 54 000 $.

Current problems

More than 90 years after its opening, the channel continues to be a great success and manages to face the needs in spite of the exponential evolution for the maritime trade. There exists however a certain number of current and potential problems.

Effectiveness and maintenance

After the withdrawal of the United States, doubts appeared as for the capacity of the new owners to maintain the channel under operation effectively. These doubts appeared unfounded since the effectiveness of the management of the channel seems to be improved under Panamanian control. A measure of the efficiency is the average time put by a ship to cross the channel, called Canal Toilets Times (CWT). According to the ACP STATE, the CWT decreases. The number of accidents is also lately with low.

Increasing volumes of imported goods of Asia which were unloaded before on the west coast of the United States, now cross the channel to go to the east coast. The full number of ships having borrowed the channel lasting the financial year 1999 was of 14 336, this figure after being fallen with 13 154 in 2003, partly because of world economic factors, went back to 14 011 in 2005. However, this evolution doubled of a constant increase in the intermediate size of the ships and number of ships Panamax in transit ; tonnage thus passed from 227,9 million tons in 1999 to 278,8 million tons in 2005.

The administration of the channel invested nearly a billion dollar in widening and modernization the channel, with an aim of increasing the capacity of 20%. The Authority of the channel quotes a great number of improvements, including the widening and the correction of the Gaillard cut to allow the crossing of large ships, more a great depth in the ship canal of the lake Gatún to improve the water provision, and the dredging of the entries Atlantique and Peaceful of the channel. For that, new ships were commandés : a barge of drilling, a Dredger with trailing dredging ladder, and an increase in the fleet of Tug boat S of 20%. The fleet of the engines must also be improved, 16 kilometers of renewed rails, and controls of the locks replaced. Improvements were already carried out in the management system of the traffic.

The withdrawal of the United States made it possible Panamá to sell electricity produced by the barrages : only 25% of produced energy are necessary to the operation of the channel.

Capacity

The channel allows now the transit of good more ships than envisaged by its originators. In 1934, the maximum capacity of the channel was estimated at 80 million tons per annum. As noted higher, the capacity managed in 2005 reached 278,8 million tons, that is to say more of triple.

In spite of the made improvements, it is expected that the channel approaches its maximum capacity soon. An additional complication is the proportion of ships close to the size Panamax in transit, which does not cease increasing, and which could lead to a reduction of the number of ships which can forward.

Competition

Although having enjoyed a privileged position during many years, the channel faces the competition of other roads. Various sources speculate in the possibility of a channel for the Mexico or in Colombia able to accommodate ships post- Panamax , and there exist at least three proposals for the construction of bonds to the Nicaragua : a channel post-Panamax proposed by the government, and two private proposals for railways connecting the two coasts.

Criticisms were emitted in connection with the increases in tariffs of the channel, suggesting that the Suez Canal could become a viable alternative for the ships coming from Asia towards the east coast of the United States. The request for the channel of Panamá however does not cease increasing.

The cast iron rate of the ices of the Arctic Ocean led to several speculations on the use of the Passage of the North-West, by supposing that it would become viable medium-term. The use of the passage would make save 9 300 kilometers with the road Asia-Europe compared to the channel of Panamá, leading to a possible carryforward of the traffic towards this road. The ice would continue however to pose problem as well as unsolved territorial problems.

Environment

The channel, by putting of connection two oceans to a latitude to which they were isolated since from the million years and by concentrating the passage of ships come from all the large ports of the world, was and remains a powerful factor of dispersion of introduced species and invasive species.

The ships and the maintenance of the installations (lock S in particular) are responsible for episodical pollution. The Deforestation of the accesses of the channel, the clearings out and the lockfuls increasingly more frequent give in suspension of the Sédiment S which make water more turbide and eutrophic.

While isolating physically and biologically (except for the birds, bat and certain migrating insects) North America from South America, this Channel was a major factor of ecological Fragmentation. Suez Canal which isolated Africa to him from Asia poses the same problem, but much less seriously, because dug on mediums infinitely less rich for the biodiversity. These two channels were the subject of no compensatory Conservative measure nor at the time of their digging, and the projects of enlarging of Panama Canal do not include measurements supporting truly the efforts of restoration of a Pan-American ecological Réseau. Infrastructures of the type écoduc over such a width pose technical challenges in addition. One or more passages in tunnel or distinct glaze would allow a reconnexion of the two sub-continents, but do not seem not considered.

The channel of Panamá has problems of water provision. The quantity of water stored in the lake Gatún decreases, mainly because of the Déforestation. 197 million liters of water is poured in the sea each time a ship passes in the canal ; although there are enough precipitations to renew the water of the lake annually, it is not enough any more in dry season. The tropical forest played a plug part traditionally by absorbing and gradually slackening water (clean) in the lake. The vegetation being reduced, the rain runs out more quickly by bringing mud torrents in the lake (which thus envase). During the dry season, water can thus miss.

Chinese presence

Before the takeover in 1999 of the channel, the government of Panamá had negotiated a 25 year old contract for the management of the container terminals of the channel (mainly two terminals at the entries the Pacific and the Atlantic) with a Chinese company, Hutchison Whampoa, based with HongKong, whose owner Li Ka-shing is the richest man of China. Certain Americans emitted criticisms on this subject, asserting that would open the way with an occupation by the Chinese army and the takeover of the channel, or even the possibility of a Chinese attack towards the United States since the ports in question. The government of Panama retorted that China operated only in the ports and not on the channel, and that the US government always had the right to intervene militarily if necessary.

Future

With the increase in request, the channel remains in strategic position of element of the world maritime trade. However, the increase in the size of the ships shows the need for changes to bring to the channel so that it keeps its market share. It is estimated that in 2011,37% of the container ships will be too large for the current channel. The current maximum capacity, with the help of some minor improvements, is estimated between 330 and 340 million tons per annum ; this capacity should be reached between 2009 and 2012. Nearly 50% of the ships currently forwarding by the channel use already the maximum width of the locks.

A project of widening similar to that of 1939 which could allow a greater traffic was considered. April 4th, 2006, the BBC reported that a project of widening was approved by the government of Panamá, that Ci approved by referendum the October 22nd 2006 to 78% of the votes.

Work of widening was officially launched the September 3rd 2007, at the time of a ceremony in which took part the old US president Jimmy Carter as well as the Heads of States of the El Salvador and of the Nicaragua. The first section of the building site was entrusted to the Panamanian company Constructora Urbana S.a.

Project of a third whole of locks

The current proposal relates to two new handsets of écluses : one in the east of the locks of Gatún in place, the other in the south-west of the locks of Miraflores, each one served by a channel of approach. Each unit will directly lead sea level to the level of the lake Gatún ; current operation in two stages on the level of the locks Miraflores/Pedro Miguel will not be reproduced. The new locks will comprise sliding doors, doubled by safety, and will be long 427 meters, broad 55 meters, and deep of 18,3 meters, allowing the transit of 49 m broad ships, a 386 meters length and a draft of 15 m, corresponding to container ships of 12 000 EVP .

The channels of approach 6,2 km will be long with Miraflores (circumventing the lake Miraflores). Each channel 218 meters will be broad, allowing the traffic only in one direction for the ships post-Panamax. The other channels will be widened up to 280 m on the right portions and 366 m on the curves. The maximum level of the lake Gatún will be high of 26,7 m with 27,1 Mr.

Each whole of locks will be accompanied by nine basins of water re-use, three per room. Each basin will make approximately 70 m broad, 430 m length and 5,5 m of depth. Supplied with gravity, they will make it possible to re-use 60% of the water used during each transit. The new locks will thus consume 7% less water than the current ones. The increase of depth of the lake Gatún and the rise of its maximum level will be able to also improve storage capacity.

The estimated cost of the project is of 5,25 billion dollars. It will make it possible to carry the maximum capacity of the channel to 510 million tons per annum in 2025. The tariffs would be always calculated on the basis of of tonnage and not locks used. The opening of the new locks is envisaged in 2015. The old locks, which will be then 100 years old, will be more available for the restoration

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