Celts

Sources and definition

Etymology

One does not know the names by which the Celts indicated themselves as people, if as well is as they did it. The “Celtic” word reached us by external civilizations which côtoyés them. Among principal testimonys (Strabon and others), let us note that of Jules César:

Gallia is omnis divided in leave very, quarum unam incolunt Belgae, aliam Aquitani, tertiam which ipsorum lingua Celtae, will nostra Galli appellantur. | Jules César in his work De Bello Gallico

which is named in their Celtes own language and ours Gaulois.

The “Celtic” word can be a derivative various words:

of the Indo-European words " “kel-kol” " who means “colonizing” or “keleto” which wants to say “fast” in reference to their frequent fast displacements to horse;
later, these words would have become the Greek words keltoï or Galates (Greek galatai ) which means “invader”;
still later, gallate became galli in Latin “Gallic” French then.
Another theory, discussed, emitted by Yann Brekilien, would like that the prince-warriors of Hallstatt and the people of Tène gave each other to themselves the name " Kelti" (or " kaleti"), which wants to say " durs".

Historical sources

The Celts appeared in the History through posterior texts, written by their enemies (like the Guerre of Gaules , of Jules César) and/or according to the memory of their victims (they besiege the Capitole and plunder the sanctuary panhellenic of Delphes to the IV E), which was worth the description of sanguinary barbarians to them which was mentioned higher.

It is necessary to wait nearly two centuries so that - majority of these people moving being already fixed for a long time - the sources deliver a profusion of geographical and cultural details to us which are not directly any more in relation to Celtic warmongering. Thus, the geographical limits of the Celtic people are better known at the time of the late Roman republic (I er), at the moment when the Celts are taken out of clipper under the combined attacks of the Romains and of the Germains.

Here a list, nonexhaustive, old principal authors who inform us about the Celts:

Hécatée de Milet (first historical mention) and
(delivers II)
Poseidonios (or Posidonius , known as of Rhodos or Apamée), Le Monde , the Ocean , Histoires (continuation of the work of Polybe)
Jules César, De Bello Gallico
Tite-Live, Roman Histoire
(in particular inspired by Posidonios)
Lucain, Pharsale (in particular on the religion)
Ammien Marcellin , Stories , XV (begins again Timagène of Alexandria)

Literary sources

The historical sources constitute only one approach of the Celtic field, and one remains on the level of the approximation. It is by the study of the medieval Irish literature that one includes/understands Celtic specificity, in Antiquity. Ireland did not know the romanisation, and from its insularity, Celtic civilization perduré until the arrival of Saint Patrick with and well beyond (by the language, lifestyle etc)

Henri d' Arbois of Jubainville listed, in 1883,953 Irish manuscripts in the libraries, without taking into account those which are preserved in particular collections. These texts go back to various times, most recent is 18th century; however the archaism of the matter is independent of the date of the document. It also happens that a text of the 18th century is the retranscription of a text of the 7th century, or that such Livre is the compilation of accounts known in addition. This literature comprises four categories: the mythological cycle, the heroic cycle of Ulster, the cycle of End and the historical cycle.

In addition to the linguistic difficulty (Irish old), it is advisable to the philologist to find the antiquated substrate of the Celts of Antiquity, in a strongly christianized context. Certain facts, certain myths were altered in order to correspond to the dogmas of the Church. Other elements, because of their seniority, being simply incomprehensible for the copyists, the retranscription becomes sometimes random.

Work of these last decades considerably modified the approach which one must have of the subject, in particular with the comparative study within the framework of the Indo-Europeans. That feels in the fields of the mythology, of the Druidisme, the structure of the company. These literary sources specify and confirm what we learned from the historical sources, and are also useful for the archaeological studies.

For the most important texts, one can quote for example:

Táin Bó Cúailnge (the raid of the cows of Cooley)
Lebor Gabála Érenn (the Book of the Conquests of Ireland)
Immacallam in da thuarad (the dialog of the two wise ones)
Auraicept Na nEces (the rudiment of the poets)
Cath Maighe Tuireadh (the battle of Mag Tured)
Dindshenchas (Antiquities or stories of the fortresses)
Mesca Ulad (the intoxication of Ulates)
Sanatoria Cormaic (Glossary of Cormac)
Suidigud Tellach Temra (the foundation of the field of Tared)
Tochmarc Emire (Emer courts It)
Tochmarc Etain (Etain courts It)
Aided Con Culaind (the death of Cúchulainn)
Airne Fingen (taken care of Fingen)
Aislinge Oengusso (the dream of Oengus)
Compert Conchobair (design of Conchobar Mac Nessa)
Forbuis Droma Damhghaire (the head office of Druim Damhghaire)

which one can add the Welsh texts:

the Mabinogion (or Four branches of Mabinogi )
Hanes Taliesin (history of Taliesin)

Archaeological sources

The Archéologie informs us as for it about another important aspect of the Celtic world: importance of the Craft industry, which explains also a domination of the minor arts, such as the Orfèvrerie, in Celtic arts. Moreover, number of the innovations of the Celtic world which are not works of art, such as the anvil or the barrel were a success deserved in the Roman world.

A Celtic statuary is known, which was confined a long time in the south-east of Gaulle (Roquepertuse, Entremont, Gallic Guerrier of Vachères) and which one supposed that it was due to the influence close to Marseilles Greek. The invention of an original statue with Glauberg (Germany) shows that this vision of the things is partial.

The archaeological sources also made it possible to acquire an important knowledge of the Celtic armament or, recently, to foresee a sanguinary spiritual universe which approaches more that the Roman texts presented for the Belgian people.

Lastly, the objects and the structures delivered by many the '' oppida '' (true city-strengthened as with Entremont, close to Aix-en-Provence or with Bibracte, the capital of the Éduens) led to the conclusion which the Celts had gradually developed, until the Roman conquest day before, a complex civilization, which was not unaware of any more town planning.

Extended and settlement of the “Celtic world”

Taking into account the duration of the civilization of the Celts, which extends from the Protohistoire until the Moyen-âge, and taking into account dimensions of geographical space that the Celts occupied in Europe, it is appropriate before tackling the question of the Celtic settlement of recalling which are the known and commonly allowed limits for the “Celtic” world (the Celtic Koinè). The oldest sources mention the Celts, living the areas which go from the Pillars of Hercules until the the Danube in the middle of the 5th century, i.e. with few things close the current territories of the Spain, the France, the Suisse, the north of the Italy, the Germany and the Austria (where the presence of populations in Celtic matter is attested).

It is at the end of the 4th century that appears, still in the Greek sources, the term “Gallates” to precisely designate the Celts brought together under the authority of a Brenn (chief) who run up against the Greeks starting from -310 (invasions carried out amongst other things by the chief Molistomos) cross not without leaving traces the Balkans and gain the Asia close to Byzance. The context in which this name is used lets think that the interested parties named themselves thus.

Nearly two centuries and half after, Jules César mentions the Gallic ones, who name Celtes in their language and which lives part of Gaulle (two other parts being populated by the Aquitanian ones and the Belgians).

Common point of these three testimonys which in addition reflect different realities and objectives, the existence of the Celts is attested during these centuries which, of Hérodote with César, constitute what the archeologists named “civilization of Tène” (site of Tène, on Thielle, in Suisse).

For this “Celtic field” attested by the historical sources, it is necessary to add the island of Brittany, also conquered shortly after by the Romans and whose César mentioned specificity compared to Gaulle. Ireland should, finally, be added, of the age of iron until the Early middle ages, such as archeology and the tradition reveal it, the insular Christian texts of this last period.

Celts or Gallic?

Considering that the Gaulois term comes from the accounts of conquest of Jules César, a restrictive definition of Gallic is referred, for the archeologists, with what concerns the areas continental relatively close to Rome (on the territories of France, of Belgium, of the extreme west of Germany and Italy of north), and populated by Celts between the end of the IV E and the end of the conquest of the “hairy Gaulle” by Jules César (in -51).

This definition excludes in particular the Celts from Brittany and Ireland, the Celts of Bohemia or Scordisques, but includes the Belgians, “Gallic midday” (subjected by Rome one century before their neighbors of north), and the Gaulois cisalpins.

A contrario , one gathers under the Celtes term the Gallic ones (including the Belgians), the Scordisques (Celtic Danubian), the Celtibères (Celtic of the Iberian peninsula - Spain and Portugal) the Bretons (Celtic of Great Britain), the Welsh of the Early middle ages, the Celts of Ireland or, the Galates of minor Asia.

Historical reference marks

Ethnogenèse of the Celts

Concerning the origin of the Celts, two extreme explanations are possible without no archaeological or historical data making it possible to take a decision.

That is to say wave of a pre-Celtic or Celtic settlement of Europe would have taken place, being superimposed on one or more former settlements: the problem of knowing when and starting from which hearth this settlement would have occurred poses then. That is to say a “Celtic” civilization strictly speaking would slowly have developed by cultural diffusion on a bottom of former prehistoric settlement: in this case, no ethnic upheaval of importance would have accompanied the “birth” by the Celts. Obviously, the combination or the juxtaposition partial of these two explanations is also possible.

In any case, the ancestors of the Celts, to perhaps seek among the pre-Celtic People, were probably among the first Indo-Europeans to have gone up the the Danube and populated the alpine area. These prehistoric tribes durably occupied all the Western part of Europe, the Scotland in North until the Spain in the south, and of the Balkans in the East until the Ireland in the west.

Culture of the fields of ballot boxes

For many researchers, origins of a settlement which one can really associate in the name of the Celts would be identifiable as from the 9th century before J.C., with the first age of Iron (Civilization of Hallstatt), as of the end of the culture of the fields of ballot boxes .

A major cultural change, indeed, takes place in prehistoric Europe, towards -1300: exploitation of the Bronze, and its production gain brutally in quality and, in same time, the tumuli (Latin - sing. Tumulus : funerary hillocks) are replaced by fields of ballot boxes: the burial S are not done any more by burial but by cremation. Ashes of late are then placed in a ballot box which is gathered with others. The expansion of this mode of burial is noted in all the Central and Western Europe, until Irlande.

Culture of Hallstatt: first age of Iron

Towards -900 with -800, a considerable technological innovation comes to upset a relatively stable civilization: the Metallurgy of the Iron. The beginnings of this metallurgy are known in the south of the Germany, the Austria and of the east in the west of the France: they seem associated with emergence with a warlike aristocracy whose prestige rests on the use of the sword and on the possession with attachments with pageantry (first Celtic tanks). It is the Civilization of Hallstatt (reference mark H on the chart below). It is necessary less than one hundred years so that these technologies are known in the whole of the Celtic world, proof of a great cohesion of the unit as of this time. Among the sites of this time, one of most known is the tomb of the princess of Vix, in Coast-with Or. The other very known funerary sites, are located in Germany, in particular the Sépulture of Hochdorf (the other quoted tombs are period of Tène), realized in the same way (a tank, gold jewels (torques and bracelets), the pendentive ones out of amber coming from the Baltic regions, of the bronze containers originating in the Etrusques and the Greeks, and the very important craters (only with Vix! ).

If the initial economic prosperity of the first age of Iron, period which seems to have been relatively stable on the political plan, rests on a North-South commercial axis, located at the east of the the Alps and connecting the the Mediterranean to the Baltique (road commercial of the Ambre), of the changes occur as of VIIIe-VIIe centuries before our era.

Towards -700/-600, indeed, the burials under tumulus undoubtedly multiplies (they disappeared never since the old Bronze Age), related to changes religious which represent an economic degradation. The original economic centers of the first age of Iron know at the same period a decline with the profit of new secondary centers. The site of Hallstatt is flaring (false) and will not be re-occupied any more (not: still last with Tène old!); at the same time, multiplication small oppida (error: starting from IIe front century J. - C.) (Latin sing. oppidum : a high place (hill or mountain) whose natural defenses were reinforced by the hand of the man) translate a correlative state of insecurity to a crumbling of the political authority. Movements of people are then attested by the Greek sources: it is at that time that is used for the first time the term keltoi to indicate the tribes residing at the north of the Alps.

Culture of Tène: second age of Iron

Towards -400 at the latest, begins in continental Europe the second age from Iron (latènien). It is characterized by a new civilization which owes its name with a remarkable site: that of Tène (reference mark L on the chart united further), discovered under water of the lake of Neuchâtel, in Swiss. At the same moment, Celtic people get under way through all Europe and upset the ancient world.

The Celtic expansion of IVe-IIIe centuries

Perhaps in the prolongation of the upheavals of the Life-Ve centuries, the Celts start at the beginning of the 4th century a phase of expansion towards the East and the Mediterranean. In turn dreaded invaders and plunderers, the Celts are in Rome in -390. Towards -350 they invade future the Bulgaria, the Thessalie, Athens. They plunder Delphes and found Belgrade. A Celtic embassy meets Alexandre Large the on banks of the the Danube. In -278, the presence of Celtic mercenaries in Galatie (minor Asia, reference mark G on the chart) is attested: they go until in Syria.

Thus, it is during the second period of the age of Iron, that of the Tène (reference mark L on the chart) that the existence of the Celts is really attested by historical sources and it is at the end of IIIe and the beginning of IIe century that they know their greater geographical expansion (zone 2 on the chart).

They undoubtedly owe it initially with their iron armament. The metallurgy of iron, indeed, controlled at the time of Hallstatt, confers an undeniable military and material superiority. It right from the start constitutes, with the language, the surest index of membership in the Celtic world. The expansion of this technology is very important, of the Central Europe until the Black Sea, while passing by the Ukraine.

Another big factor seems to be their mobility. The Celts have initially and lasting very a long time a reputation of mercenaries: one knows troops of isolated warriors, but also those accompanied by a whole population, achieving what the Romans name worm sacrum , i.e. a crowned migration. This reputation goes perdurer. Very famous even after the defeat of Alésia, the Celts will be useful in the Roman armies like auxiliaries: Gallic riders.

Among the Celtic armament, the Celtic sword long will be copied by the German ones which will make of it later the instrument of their victories on the Romans. The Coat of mail, finally, is a Celtic invention which will be included in everyone ancient before being success that one knows with the Middle Ages. Beside that, the Celts use the sling and the Lance. The arc is spread only at the time of resistance against Rome.

Defeats of IIe-Ier centuries

To IIe-Ier centuries before our era, the Celts are subjected on the continent to the combined pressure of the Germains to the east and the Romains to the south.

Following a call using Marseilles, threatened by the close Celtic tribes, Rome a southernmost part of Gaulle occupies, thus creating the province Narbonnaise, lasting the last third of IIe century.

The invasions of armed bands and the demographic pressure with German involve Celtic migrations of people towards the west, like that of the Helvètes led by their king Orgétorix, and cause tensions with the Gallic people. It is the latter factor which causes the Guerre of Gaules and marks the end of Celtic independence on the continent starting from -58. The intervention of César then would have been justified, writes it, by the desire to return Helvètes on their premises in order not to leave Germanic people occupy the Swiss plate beyond the rhine. Whereas actually the main motivation of César was to prevent, like he writes it itself, the installation of Helvètes as a Gaulle of the West, from where they could threaten Provincia (Gaulle of the South, conquered by Rome towards 120 av. J. - C.).

Occupied by the Roman conqueror who involved himself in the Gallic policy, part of Gaulle raises in January -52. After the defeat with Alésia of the chief of the Gallic coalition, Vercingétorix, Gaulle is entirely occupied. The last opponents are overcome in -51 with Uxellodunum where they had taken refuge.

At our era, the island of Brittany is conquered in its turn: consequently, Celtic civilization does not survive any more but in Ireland, and in the north of the Scotland. Helvétie is germanisée between Ve and the Life century. The Breton populations, of which a part at least had preserved the use of the Celtic language, and Irish are christianized after IIIe (Ve for the Ireland) and evolve/move to give birth to Irish, Scot, Breton, Welsh and cornouaillais modern.

Civilization

Mobility and organization of the Celtic world

The mobility of the Celts at the second age of iron (laténien) is attested by archeology and many Greek testimonys and Roman writings between the 5th century and the 2nd century.

On the other hand, it is more difficult to tackle the question of the organization of the Celtic world as of the first age of iron (hallstattien) because one lays out over this time that archaeological sources.

Hallstatt

During this period, the trade with the the Mediterranean leads to the constitution of a true network of “principalities” being spread out in arc of circle from the east of Gaulle in Bohemia. These principalities dominate each one a territory from 30 to 40 kilometers of ray (Patrice Brun): the sites of Vix, the Heuneburg, and Hohenasperg enable us to locate the heart of this phenomenon of concentration of the capacity between the Burgundy and the Wurtemberg, of the 9th century at the 5th century century.

The commercial exchanges with the Mediterranean constituted of the economic centers being used as relay towards the more remote areas of barbarian Europe. These centers undergo the effects of a slip of trade route of the east of the Alps towards the Rhone-native plain at the end of the period.

The cruel intermediaries in the trade with the Mediterranean multiply then and the principalities of Celtic the decline quickly at the 5th century. About the same period, the metallurgy of iron is spread in Great Britain: the island had remained until there in periphery of this system of European exchanges whose control was ensured by some “princes”.

Second age of iron (laténien)

Period of expansion of the Celts

The period of expansion had bond of the 5th century until the end of the 3rd century, during which the Celtic field itself was formed in its broadest borders.

This period is characterized by a series of migrations and invasions by populations originating in the North-East of France and north of the the Alps: these migrations, index of a very great mobility, lead the Celts in the north of Italy, in Eastern Europe as far as Ukraine and even, through the epopee of Gallates, as far as minor Asia.

One can however only guess, at this period, the existence of several “whole” in the Celtic world to have an idea, very incomplete, of his organization. Knowledge which comes from archeology, indeed, relates especially to the unit characteristics of the Celts: an art originating in the Central Europe nevertheless could be distinguished, which is the index of the formation of an original and prosperous Celtic culture: that of the Scordisques of Pannonia. It is also with the backward flow in Macedonia of the Celts who had invaded the Greece, at the 3rd century, which constitutes the celto-thrace culture of the Taurisques.

The historical sources relate to as for them primarily the art of the war of the Celts: Celts proposing their services as a mercenary with the old Greeks. This practice is known through several accounts of the world hellenistic, like that of an embassy near Alexandre Large the on the the Danube.

One can also draw from the sources, generally posterior, certain features (legendary or not) of the geographical mobility of the Celts. At the origin of this mobility, one can quote the practice of the crowned migrations, under the control of a war leader ( brenn ), with possibly the fire of the “city” of origin (attested during the following period at the Helvètes). The exact reasons of this swarming, however, remain unknown, but they are probably demographic.

The etymology, finally, delivers to us an outline of the mobility of the people. Certain names of people, indeed, are known in extremely different areas of Europe in IIIe-Ier centuries: that clarifies their movements in Ve-IIe centuries, without the detail being always known:

of the Vénètes (which gave their name to the town of Vannes) is known in several areas of Europe: those of Armorique are finally beaten in -56 by the galères of César in the Golfe of Morbihan. perhaps
Of the Volques is used as mercenaries on the the Danube at the time of Alexandre the Large one, either before being established in the area of Toulouse, or being originating in this one. It also goes from there from the Rèmes, which gave their name to Rheims.
Of the Sénons (originating in Direction?) and of the Boïens (which then gave their name to the Bohemia) enter to Italy, where them chief, known under the name of Brennus , besieges and holds to ransom Rome in -390. These are established with in the plain of Po and live in the south of Vertamocoriens (originating in the Vercors?).
Of the Celtae (“Celtic”) is known in the Iberian peninsula, their name being probably with their foreign origin with this area.
Of the Gallates, to which the name is obviously to bring closer to that, posterior, of “Gallic” of the Cisalpine, is established as for them in current the Turkey, benefitting from the wars which agitate minor Asia.
Of the Belgae (“Belgian”) is present at Ier century before our era on banks of the the Thames, in England and even, more in north still, precisely with Vindolanda, a region in the north of England on the line of demarcation represented by the Hadrian's Wall.

One also finds in the south of the island of the Parisii , to perhaps bring closer to the parisii , which gave their name to the town of Paris.

Period of fold of the Celts

The fold of the Celts is caused by the Roman conquests which took place during the 2nd century and 1st century. The essence of the Celtic world of then is known mainly through work with political character of Jules César.

This last distinguishes in the geographical surface indicated under the name of “Gaulle”, “Celtic the” itself one, “Belgium” occupied by the “Belgian people” (of the people Celtic or germano-Celtic) and “Aquitaine”.

According to Jules César, the Belgian people present character traits more antiquated then than their Western neighbors: archeology actually highlighted their warmongering, that one can explain by the permanence of the cultural features of the period of preceding expansion.

With the beginning of the war of Gaules, the Gallic ones, as for them, developed federative systems which result, by the play of the “customers”, in a concentration of the capacity to the hands of some “cities”. Those, rival, of the Arvernes, the Éduens and the Séquanes clearly dominate Gaulle hairy the day before the Roman conquest.

To explain this evolution, it is possible to call upon an older system of alliances to military vocation: that which gives rise to the “federations of people”. This system, which would have been set up during the period of expansion of the Celts, would have perduré before changing in IIe and Ier centuries following the progressive disappearance of the internal conflicts in the Celtic world.

Examples of such alliances are known among people established to several hundred kilometers from/to each other, at the moment when Rome conquers midday of Gaulle (last third of the 2nd century). Thus, the king of the Salyens could take refuge at Arvernes, or, the Voconces and the Allobroges could form a coalition.

During times which precede the Roman conquest of Gaulle hairy, probably as of the end of the 2nd century, these alliances find their prolongation in peace for economic reasons. They lead then to a system more centralized than the simple federations of people: such an evolution explains the disappearance of certain royalties (at Arvernes) or the distinction of an oligarchy at Éduens.

The birth of new frameworks of the capacity as a Gaulle can also explain the use of the word “quoted” ( civitas ) by Jules César to indicate a certain Gallic sociopolitic reality in -58.

Gaulle can then know an evolution comparable with that driving with the birth of the “traditional” city, in antiquated Greece: at the same time a whole of citizens, a whole of laws and the territory on which are exerted these laws.

The definition exact to give to the “quoted” word, being the Gallic one, and the existence of borders clearly established between the various people of Gaulle, however make still debate.

An about similar evolution could be proposed among Celts of Bohemia (of the Boiohaemum ). The latter then have sumptuous residences in oppida dominating the Danubian way : the economic and religious role of these fortified towns is obvious. But their decline is fast, primarily related on the fights against the Daces and to the pressure of the German ones. Some of these Boïens come besides as a Gaulle where they take part in the war against the Romans.

To supplement this table, it is necessary to note the existence of old and durable bonds which bring closer the Western people to the Atlantic facade, of the Vendée until the south-west of British Isles.

In these British Isles, also, the material culture reveals what one can compare either to particularisms, or with archaisms. The habitat, in particular, remains very far away from the Celtic “cities” (Stephan Fichtl) which one can observe on the continent: it rather shows the permanence of features inherited the Bronze Age. The use of the tank of war, abandoned on the continent during the development of the Celtic mercenariat, at the latest with the 3rd century, perdure in Great Britain until the Roman conquest. If they did not leave any archaeological trace in this island, the Irish myths of the Early middle ages make some in state.

In short, that one compares between them the archaeological data inherent in Gallic “space”, in the broad sense, (in particular diffusion areas of the currencies), or that one takes for example the relations between Gaulle Belgium and the island of Brittany, it appears that on broad scale a network complexes economic relations and cultural binds the Celts between them to before our era. These relations are underlain, on less scale, by customers and federations of people probably worked out with a warlike aim at the time of the period of the Celtic expansion.

In this world which does not know a political unit exceeding the framework - dubious - “city” mentioned by César, the tribe, the people, or it (idiot) federation of people, constitutes at the same time the place original and privileged identity of the former Celts and this identity must much with the war.

However, with the end (relative) of the mobility of the Celts, as of the end of the 3rd century, and with insulation then the contracting of certain “areas” of the Celtic field, of the separate evolutions print their mark on the various components of this space: also, Belgians, Gallic (in a strict sense), Celts of Bohemia, Breton and Gallates of minor Asia present, with, of the important differences according to their distance compared to the model of Celtic organization preceding.

Art and culture

Manners

About manners, although this fact is especially emphasized by the Anglo-Saxon historians, the mythological and epic accounts of the Irish, posterior Middle Ages several centuries, inform us about features of civilization which present a relative similarity with those that described the old Greeks: the Celts are festive, prompt to carry themselves, brawlers and superstitious.

Thus, according to Appien (VII.), the Celts are intemperate and gorge themselves with beer; that makes their flesh flask. For Strabon (IV. IV, 2.), the Gallic ones are irascible, prompt with the battle and quarrellers (IV, 6.). , etc These character traits, obviously, raise in majority of the vision that Latin of the Celts had.

Nevertheless, in fact such passages inform us about other more interesting aspects, though prone to controversy, culture of the former Celts: thus, Diodore of Sicily teaches us that the Celtic warriors preserved the head of their enemies and dedicated a worship to him, the Irish texts as for them, if they bring back the fact, does not give him a religious character. This information was put in connection with the archaeological inventions of lintels of gantries representing of the cut heads, or with the properly Celtic decorations of the gates of the churches of the Christian Ireland: the latter privilege the representation of the heads of saints. Lucain, as for him, informs its readers about the sinister and sanguinary aspect of the places of worship of the Celts: its assertions, to bring closer to those of Strabon on the human sacrifices, since then summer put in connection with the deposits of offerings of the Celtic sanctuaries of Gaulle septentrional and Belgium.

Company

The people of the people Indo-Europeans constitutes the base of the Celtic company. In other words, just like in Rome and in Greece, they are families in the broad sense term which form a tuath together (word Gaelic), a clan. This fine family, or for the Gaëls, has the same Latin direction as familias in and includes all the parents until the ninth degree. Beyond the ninth degree, another family is made up and the goods before common must be divided.

The clan or the tribe, whose prototype who remained to us is the Scottish Clan, is the basic political cell which gathers all the social hierarchy, of the chief, or king, to the slaves and community properties. The clan was a whole and could all regulate itself. Therefore, so seemingly the Celts did not have a political unit, it is that they had never had need for unification beyond the clan. Their design of the State is contrary to that of the Romains of the time republican or imperial, for which an almost totalitarian State was it to what very thought and any activity were dedicated.

Writing

The Celts probably discovered the writing under the influence of the Étrusques, in Italy of the North-West, where inscriptions in Celtic language use the Alphabet of Lugano: these “lepontic Inscriptions” comes in particular from the Culture of Golasecca, celticized perhaps at the end of the VII E or towards 600 av. J. - C. at the latest.

As a Gaulle Southerner, the “Gallic ones of the South” as for them delivered us several inscriptions using the Greek alphabet. They could acquire the knowledge of this writing in contact with the city phocéenne of Marseilles, in the south-east of France, as of the VII E

The gallo-Greek inscriptions (writing with the Greek alphabet of texts in Gallic language) are the most important sources written by Celts who reached us for the period former to the Roman conquest of the Narbonnaise: they cover shards (marks of property), furnace bridges (dedications) and one of them is even gone back to -500/-450 (Italy of north).

In the historical Gallic surface laténienne, the use of the writing would have been limited by the Druide S for cultural reasons and of religious taboo (Jules César).

As regards the insular field, it is advisable to quote the Ogam , or oghamic writing, whose origin is Irish. Its mythical invention is allotted to Ogme (Gallic equivalent: Ogmios), the god of the Tuatha Die Danann, whose function is the warlike magic, the eloquence and of poetry. It is a crowned writing reserved for the Druide S, which was elaborate starting from the Latin alphabet and whose reading is difficult. This marking system is composed of 25 letters whose C-W communication is a vertical edge on which features are notched on the right or on the left, obliques or perpendiculars; these letters are associated with the symbolism of the trees.

The texts give a report on magic uses or divinatoires, whose privileged supports were the wood of yew and hazel tree. 300 inscriptions on stone are known for us, they are funerary. According to the archeologist Venceslas Kruta, the oghamic writing was also used for commercial transactions and the demarcation as grounds. The found stones were dispersed in Ireland and Scotland, but also in Wales, on the island of Man and in Cornouailles, in zones of Gaelic influence.

Lastly, a last important whole of sources written in Gallic language is dated from the Roman period. The Calendrier of Coligny is one of the major pieces: dated as for him from the end of a. J. - C., it employs the Latin alphabet which we know.

Art

Religion

If the Celts knew the writing and sometimes used it, they privileged orality for the transmission of the Knowledge, whatever is the field, so that it is necessary to study the Celtic field starting from external or late sources. The construction of sanctuaries of religious use is a very late fact in the Celtic field since they appear only at third century BC. At the previous times, the worship governed by the sacerdotal class of the Druid S, was made in the spaces crowned in full nature (Nemeton in Gallic language means “crowned”, nemed in Gaelic), like the clearings, the proximity of the sources. Lucain, in the Pharsale (III, 399-426), gives us the description of one of these places with a strictly prohibited place, reserved to the gods. The site of Burkovák (Bohemia) conceals very many objects in votive matter, but is free from any construction. It is possible also that units megalithic, such Carnac or Stonehenge could be re-used by the druids with an aim cultuel. The construction of palisades around enclosure and buildings intervenes at one time or Celtic civilization starts its decline. Most famous of these sites Gournay-on-Swallow is that.

Sources

The independent sources on the religion of the former Celts are first of all the texts of their Greek and Latin contemporaries, in particular Diodore of Sicily ( Histoires ), Strabon ( Géographie ), Pomponius Mela ( De Chorographia ), Lucain ( Pharsale ), Pline Old the ( Natural history ), and especially Jules César with the Guerre of Gaules . Then, there exists a whole whole of Irish texts, written of VIIIe in XVe century, which retranscribe the myths and epopees of the Ireland orally transmitted generations in generations, and which constitutes the Celtic Mythologie.

These texts, written in a Christian context, supplement those of Old; one will retain: the Cath Maighe Tuireadh (Battle of Mag Tured) , the Tochmarc Etaine (Courts Tin) , the Táin Bó Cúailnge (Raid of the Cows of Cooley) , the Lebor Gabala (Book of the Conquests) and the Mabinogion Welsh .

Generally, the relative absence of first hand testimonys of which we have on the religion the former Celts gave place to a whole of more or less odd interpretations. Actually, knowledge that we have some supports on this whole of external sources, whose matter can be limited to political considerations (César), or to introduce “barbarians”, with the modern direction of the term (Lucain). Lastly, it is necessary to connect what we know of the former Celts and the late Irish sources with greatest circumspection: these last, indeed, present like any mythology of the not-Celts influences: natives, who would be older and specific to the geographical context, Christian women,… And still, these sources testify to a reality distant from five to ten centuries compared to that from the contemporary Celts from the Roman conquest.

Obeying basically the general outline of the tripartition of the Indo-European companies , the Celtic company appears to be structured in three classes: the sacerdotal class which have the Knowledge, manage the Monk and make the Law, the warlike class which manages the military businesses under the command of the king and the class of the producers (craftsmen, farmers, stockbreeders, etc) who must provide for the needs for the whole of the company and in priority with those of the two other classes (César speaks about the druids, of the equities (knights) and of the plebs).

Druidism

Religious calendar

The Celtic year was rythmée by four great religious holidays with the obligatory character, including two major: Samain at October 31st or November 1st and Beltaine at April 30th or May 1st, and two of less importance: Imbolc 1st or on February 2nd and Lugnasad on August 1st.

The major source which informs us about the Celtic calendar is the Calendrier of Coligny, of the Gallo-Roman time.