Carolingian Rebirth

Since the 7th century the frank kingdom like the other cruel kingdoms passes through a deep economic crisis, policy and cultural. The economic model resulting from antiquity on which they are founded is called into question by the Moslem expansion to the Mediterranean. This crisis involves the takeover of Europe by the Pippinides. Those, to as much justify their new statute with respect to the Mérovingiens then of Byzance that to unify their empire, try to restore institutionnellement and culturally the Roman Empire with the support of the Church. This attempt called renovatio by the contemporaries then Carolingian rebirth more tardily, is especially visible by artistic and architectural innovations, but it involves also economic transfers and structural major which will be the base of the Renaissance of the year millet. In fact Europe changes radically: it leaves antiquity definitively and enters the feudal age.

Definition

The expression Carolingian rebirth is to be used with precaution because one can lend several directions to him. In 799, being made spokesperson of its entourage of well-read men, Alcuin convinces Charlemagne to restore the Roman Empire. It is this direction which it is advisable to give to the word renovatio employed at the time. It includes/understands as much a concept of revival artistic, as of restoration of the imperial authority, with all the implications institutional, religious, linguistic, monetary and social that comprises. It is only at the 19th century that appears the expression Carolingian rebirth and in particular at Jules Michelet. This expression can be interpreted like much more restrictive (restoration of the ancient culture), but in the thought of Michelet the term rebirth is rather synonymous with total projection of a civilization. In fact, this period marks a big change: for the modern historians such as Balard the cruel kingdoms are marked by the persistence of the romanity at least from a socio-economic and artistic point of view; at the end 7th century one enters during one crisis period economic, demographic, political and cultural of the cruel kingdoms, which one leaves with the Carolingian rebirth. This period if it is short (it closes at the end of the 9th century with the disorders born of the dissolution of the empire and the invasions), allows the passage the feudal age and sees the swing of the European center of gravity towards north. At this period are installation the economic, social, cultural evolutions and nuns who lead to the 10th century with the Renaissance of the year millet founding medieval civilization Des.

First steps of the rebirth

After the fall of the Roman Empire at the 5th century ancient knowledge does not disappear therefore, the more so as Justinien the Roman Emperor of the East takes again the control of the Mediterranean as of the 6th century, in particular Italy is Byzantine until the 8th century. On the contrary, as of the end of the 6th century a cultural revival is perceptible in periphery of Europe, particularly in the Iberian peninsula and British Isles (at the 19th century Guizot already clarifies the Irish contribution at the Carolingienne rebirth).

The Roman cultural heritage

The cruel chiefs who controlled Italy after the fall of Rome were aristocrats dedicated to order the German mercenaries. They were formed in the Roman Empire and thus are relatively cultivated and romanisés. It were put up perfectly with the Latin culture and did not seek to destroy it. Thus, when in 476 Odoacre combined with the Hun S takes Rome, it preserves of them the administration, the Senate and the systems monetarist and legal. In return, it is largely supported by the Senate and the people. As of 493, it is reversed by Théodoric Large the ostrogoth a trained military chief with Constantinople and thus also cultivated to him, which takes Latin well-read men as advisers such as Boèce, Symmaque or Cassiodore. It leaves the large universities in activity and allows the intellectuals such as Cassiodore or the pope Agapet to gather their knowledge within the libraries. The Library of Vivarium created by Cassiodore at the 6th century gathers ancient hundreds of works (among which works of Sophocle, Théodoret or Sozomen). By doing this, it is with against current of the ascetic philosophy of the monachism of its time. The relative insulation of Italy east however of short duration, since the Byzantine emperor Justinien makes the reconquest of it as of 535, which involves a good level of conservation of ancient knowledge. In 590, the pope Gregoire Large the reorganizes the pontifical library by gathering the libraries of Agapet and Cassiodore to the Lateran. He uses this cultural treasure to make essential the Roman Church. The books are lent in all Europe and mainly in British Isles and the Iberian peninsula what makes it possible to the ecclesiastics to found new libraries. The frank pilgrims bring back with them several manuscripts. With 6th and 7th centuries, many are the monks who come from Ireland or Spain to seek books and relics for their monastery. Rome preserves its influence in their conceding his treasures.

Since the reconquest of Italy by Justinien in 535, the popes are subjected to the authority of Byzance. But the Moslem pressure occupies the Byzantine Armée in the south and the east. Rome must thus only organize its defense against the Lombards which invade the north of Italy and takes in fact its independence, being turned over towards the Francs to find a protection. Lombards settle in the north of Italy and found a new barbarian kingdom. They seize the administrative power in the conquered territories but do not plunder the monasteries. The libraries suffer but do not disappear.

In 730, the emperor Leon III Isaurien (emperor of 717 with 741) prohibited the use of icon S of the Christ, Virgin Mary and saints, and orders their destruction. This crisis iconoclast involves immigration with Rome and in Occident of many artists and Byzantine well-read men. Eastern art is diffused in Western Europe and in particular Rome, where he is encouraged by the pope and the prelates. The Byzantine presence in Italy of north lasted more than two centuries and its heritage poses one of the bases on which can be based the Carolingian rebirth. Rome is also re-elected for its school of song ( schola cantorum ) which is used as model during all the Early middle ages. As for the court lombarde of Pavia, it impresses much Charlemagne at the end of the 8th century.

The kingdom Visigoth

Haven of peace in the Occident since the end of the 6th century, Spain wisigothe is one of the principal Christian academies of the ancient culture. She wants to be the heiress of the Roman Empire of occident. The kingdom accommodates intellectuals of North Africa driven out by the Vandales, of the Byzantine then Musulmans. The literary production of the peninsula specializes in compilations and the anthologies, while creating original works in history, right and theology. Its schools, which transmit the traditional culture, train clerks as well as the laic ones, and the many sale contracts preserved on slate testify to the diffusion of the writing in the communities rurales.
Large bishops, who are also of great authors, make their episcopal sees of the intellectual centers by equipping them with libraries and schools.

The library sévillane is then the center more shining under the impulse of Léandre then Isidore of Seville. This brilliant culture Mozarab on the other hand has an important role in the revival of the year millet. However, of the intellectuals Visigoths such as Théodulf of Orleans or Benoît d' Aniane, close to Charlemagne have an cultural activity and architectural of foreground.

Irish monachism and northumbrien

Since the 6th century the Church tests évangéliser the areas located at the borders of Christendom. Many missionaries are sent successfully in British Isles. These islands had been in the past christianized but the invasion by the Saxons isolated the Christians from Rome. The pope Gregoire 1st by sending Augustin of Canterbury revival evangelization of the island of Brittany. Many monasteries are created (particularly in Ireland) which are the center of the local spiritual life. They are also major cultural hearths. In addition to the crowned writings, one studies the profane sciences and letters there: poetry, music. Illumination and penmanship are there with the honor, for example in scriptorium of Canterbury. The Celtic legends for the majority are saved by these cultivated monks who provide the only material available thus to reconstitute the culture and the religion of these people.

Paradoxically it is with these monks that one owes the conservation of pure Latin. In Ireland, one speaks Celtic, contrary to Gaulle where the vulgar language is Latin who, with time and the invasions, degenerated what returns the traditional Latin texts difficult to include/understand. Latin, official language of the Roman Empire spoken forever in Ireland. It is about a foreign language whose monks cultivate the most traditional expression. They preserve also the old Greek and the philosophy of this brilliant civilization. This passion leads them to reproduce many profane texts and thus to save most of Greek and Latin philosophy.

Bède Worthy the (672-735) is one of these Moine S and well-read men Anglo-Saxon S of Latin culture most known. He is the author of a considerable work. Very popular in Europe during all the the Middle Ages, Bède is especially known today like the historian of the Angles thanks to its main work, completed in 731 or 732. Bède, interested by the Patristic , writes several works of mathematics and philosophy, in accordance with the courses of the traditional teaching of the Liberal arts ( trivium and Quadrivium ). He is the founder of the Comput, science of the dating and the calculation of the date of the mobile religious holidays (Easter). The fame of these erudite monks is such as one comes by far to receive teaching from it (one can remain in a monastery as student). Certain convents of Ireland and Scotland count more than thousand monks.

Practices, at the origin specific to the coenobites, are communicated to the entire people. It is the case of the confession and penitence. The monk representing an ideal of holiness which one wants to imitate, the practice of the pilgrimage, (often to Rome) spreads himself among the laic ones. The monks have a missionary role which obliges them to say the eucharistie in the campaigns on portable furnace bridges, for the communion, they are made help of the women who distribute the Body of Christ. The Irish monachism is thus naturally carried to diffuse itself with the whole of British Isles and particularly in Northumbrie, then starting from VIIe century towards the continent, where many are the Irish monks preaching through the frank kingdoms. They profit even from the support of the queen Bathilde who wants to be opposed to the loss of being able of the mérovingiens to the detriment of the powerful customers which take the control of the various dioceses and supports the foundation of monasteries like counterweight to the bishops: many and prestigious abbeys are created in the frank kingdom: Jumièges, Luxeuil, Chelles, Corbie, Holy Wandrille or Jouarre. Holy Colomban and its companions founds many abbeys such those of Luxeuil, Annegray, Fountains, of Gall saint or Bobbio in Italy. The monasteries rested by the Irishmen remain in contact with their country of origin, Bobio becoming even a center of important pilgrimage. The Celtic and British monks have an important role in the cultural push which marks the Carolingian rebirth: they clearly supported the visible cultural revival in the continental monasteries as of the end of the 7th century, but of the British well-read men such as Alcuin, Dungal de Bangor, Clément of Ireland or Jean Scot Erigène have an important role in the palatine schools of Charlemagne or Charles the Bald person. It is them which introduce the techniques of teaching based on the liberal arts on the model of the British monasteries.

See also: Bède Worthy the, Colomban de Luxeuil, Rule of saint Colomban, Irish Christianity

Carolingian empire

At the 8th century, the change of the principal commercial axes disaggregates the cruel Royaumes with the detriment of new dominant forces, the system clientelist which prevails at that time can lead in the long term to the constitution of enormous but fragile empire. The pippinides leave victorious, but must justify their takeover with respect to the mérovingiens then with respect to the Byzantine empire and must unify their immense empire. They thus invest gradually in an intense cultural policy and nun.

Constitution of a strong State

The situation of the culture as a Gaulle towards 750

Propaganda pippinide did not hesitate to blacken the table of cultural retreat under the mérovingiens to justify the takeover by the Carolingians. In the same way at the 19th century, François Guizot paints also a severe picture on the “intellectual decline of Gaulle Franque of”. This point of view is to be balanced: as in the others cruel Kingdoms, the Mérovingiens tries to preserve the ancient cultural asset. The sovereigns often take as advisers of the bishops or the aristocrats resulting Gallo-Roman senatorial families (often coming from Aquitaine which was the province remained romanisée). They make build basilicas of the Roman type at Paris, Auxerre or Selles-sur-Cher, and starting from the middle of the 7th century, the kingdom is confronted with a strong crisis. This one is initially economic with the contraction of the Mediterranean trade and the disappearance of the Greek merchants and Syrians who ran out of the luxury items by the Rhone-native axis. It is worsened by a secondary demographic crisis with the Peste of Justinien). Lastly, the grounds of the church are often redistributed with the vassal laic ones little concerned with the teaching and the safeguarding of the knowledge. On the whole, at the 8th century, the situation of the culture in the kingdoms mérovingiens is poor compared to the Italian, Anglo-Saxon and Irish hearths. Charles Martel itself did not hesitate to name laic abbots or bishops. The pagan practices always have course in certain campaigns. The schools are not numerous enough and the Masters inefficient or absent. The franque aristocracy is interested more in the war (principal manner at the time of maintaining its vassal) that with the letters and the large monasteries of the south of Gaulle were devastated by the Moslem wars and raids. Boniface of Mainz thus describes the state of the franque Church to the pope of which he is a close relation and a faithful support: In the majority of the cities, the episcopate is delivered to laic avid goods of the Church or to adulterous clerks, discharged, practitioner wear. The Carolingian Rebirth however does not arrive in an absolute cultural desert: certain abbeys of Neustrie, Burgundy and Austrasie often created by Irish missionaries preserve the manuscripts and animate famous workshops of copies. Indeed, carried by the monastic wave missionary of the 7th century, a true network of exchange and copy of manuscripts was created on the axis of pilgrimages between Ireland and Italy, but the exchanges are also done with wisigothic Spain and the frank monasteries which are geographically in the center of the network. Following the progressive dissolution of the capacity mérovingien, the sovereigns and princes had to concede immunities with a certain number of abbeys to preserve their support. In addition the prestige of the Celtic monks contrasting with the ruin of the secular clergy involves many donations which enrich and increases the land possessions of the Abbeys. The first manuscripts with paintings are contemporary with Luxeuil (the Lectionnaire towards 700), Corbie, Laon. But to sit its capacity at the expense them Mérovingiens it must show that it has the capacity and the knowledge in fact. It puts a point of honor so that its sons have a good education. If the Carolingian rebirth could take place it is initially because the Carolingians were educated and are fond of delicacies of culture. In the same way it must show as it is the best supports church. It has certainly redistributed number of loads ecclesiastical with close relations (as much to remunerate his customers that for évincer the bishops and abbots who are not favorable for him), but the church is in such a state that its active support for the missionaries such as Boniface of Mainz or Pirmin are worth the support of Rome to him.

The Church indeed may find it beneficial to be based on this strong dynasty to counter the threats Islamic, Byzantine and lombarde. Theoretically the pope is under the supervision of Constantinople, but the army of the emperor is monopolized by the Moslem expansion. It cannot play its part of guard and Rome benefits from it for émanciper: they are the other European great power of the time and threaten papacy directly.

Then, the pope requests the help of Charles Martel to push back Lombards, it puts under the protection of the Francs all its properties and their request to reconquer the Italy. After having gained the victory against the Arabs with Poitiers, the king of the Francs writes to the pope Gregoire III announcing the happy news to him. This one has a very sharp repercussion and designates Charles, in particular with the eyes of papacy, like the defender in Occident of the faith and the Church. Charles Martel receives the title of “Very Christian” granted by the pope and to which right all its successors have.

Pépin the Brief decides to restore the grounds monopolized by his/her father in Précaire at the request of the king ( precaria verbo governed ). In November 751, Pépin deposits Childéric III, then is made elect king of the Francs, in Soissons, while being made acclaim by an assembly of bishops, the noble ones and of leudes (large of the kingdom).

In 774, Charlemagne demolishes Didier, king of Lombards, which threatens the pope, and seizes its States. The Byzantine exarchat of Ravenne fell only twenty-three years earlier and it is thus a very cultivated area which passes under franque domination. In addition, the Francs consider that there is no more emperor since the empress Irene made burst the eyes of his/her son Constantin VI and taken the capacity into 797. In 812, by the treaty of Aachen, the Empereur of the East Michel I {{er}} recognizes Charlemagne like emperor of Occident.

Concentration of the knowledge

The frank kingdom then the Carolingian empire constitute a space of safety in Europe, but also a ground with évangéliser. The vocation missionary and the invasions of the Vikings push Irish scholars and northombriens to come. Gaulle is traversed, since the 6th century by missionaries and pilgrims coming from British Isles or from Italy. These very different influences cause strong disparities on the level of the monastic and liturgical rules. They contribute with the introduction of the rule of Benoît saint (thanks to Benoît d' Aniane) to Carolingian monastic vagueness. Rome actively supports the foundation of many monasteries in their trustful of many relics. The support of Rome explains the presence at the court of the Carolingians of Italian scholars like Paul Diacre and Pierre of Pisa.

Same manner, the fall of the Kingdom Visigoth, to the 8th century, during the invasion of the Iberian peninsula by Buckwheats leads intellectuals and ecclesiastics to join the Franc kingdom. Thus from Visigoths great minds like Théodulf of Orleans or Benoît d' Aniane will join the court of Charlemagne.

Carolingian rebirth

Stages of the cultural and spiritual revival

Carolingians: kings open to the culture

Pip the Brief: Cleansing of the clergy and liturgical unification

Pip the Brief which was informed with the abbey of Saint-Denis, makes work the best scribes in its chancellery (one finds Benoît d' Aniane or Chrodegang in its entourage). Under the influence of Boniface, Pip the Brief as his/her brother follows a policy of cleansing of the Church. Councils are organized in Neustrie and Austrasie to give a new hierarchy within the frank clergy, with the head of which one finds Boniface as leader of the various bishops divided in various cities of the kingdom. The unworthy priests are relieved. Pip decides to restore the grounds monopolized by his/her father in Précaire at the request of the king ( precaria verbo governed ). Theoretically, the nominations of bishops should have fallen to the Pope, but once crowned, Pépin takes again the things in hand as of 755. It charges Chrodegang (the bishop of Metz) with the reform of the clergy and of drafting of a rule of the canons called Regula vitae communis and inspired by the Règle of saint Benoît. Chrodegang already founder of three abbeys (Saint-Avold, Gorze and Lauresheim), in addition worked out a synthesis of the “old Roman song” (overdraft at the time of a voyage to Rome) with the song Gallican which is the ancestor of the song Grégorien. He convinces Pépin the Brief to make adopt by the council of Quierzy-on-Oise the Roman liturgy. According to the chronicle of the monk of Saint-Gall the Etienne pope, to support this policy, sends twelve cantors to him to help with the diffusion of these liturgical modifications. When Paul I {{er}} goes up on the saint sits this support of the cultural revival continues: by the reception of monks in Italy to form them with the song and the liturgy and by the sending of works. For example, the written pontiff with Pépin: We send all the books to you which we could find, know Antiphonaire , Responsal , the Dialectical one of Aristote , the books of saint Denys Aréopagite, the Geometry, the Orthography, Grammar, and a night clock.

Charlemagne: The palatine school

Charlemagne, itself educated, continue the work of his/her father, while defining a general political program in which the culture holds an important place. Its ambition is to create a vast political space and monk. The letters and arts are elements of prestige and Charlemagne wishes to compete with the other courses, in particular with Byzance and Rome. For that, it makes come in its palate the best spirits from its time. The king, who becomes emperor into 800, listening, their request council and the reward. The most known well-read men of the court of Charlemagne, who constitute the first generation of the Carolingian Rebirth are mainly Italian well-read men such as Paulin d' Aquilée, Pierre of Pisa or Paul Diacre.

Paul Diacre is the author of many poems, fables or of historical works ( Gesta episcoporum Mettensium , Historia Romana , Historia Langobardorum , Vita beati Gregorii papae ). In 827, it makes come from Rome of the relics of Marcellin saint and Pierre saint, and founds the monastery of Seligenstadt. In 830, it founds a Benedictine abbey in Mulinheim

But, the true founder of the palatine school with Aachen is Alcuin: arrived of England in 782, it becomes one of the principal advisers of the emperor. It takes share with principal the Concile S and fights the Adoptianisme there. It takes part in the reform Liturgique, and in particular in the revision of the books like the Lectionnaire , the Sacramentaire Gregorian and famous the Bible of Alcuin. But especially, it sets up a vast program of education taking again the structure of the Seven liberal arts of Martianus Capella, Cassiodore and Boèce, preserved by Isidore of Seville and developed by Bède Worthy the. The liberal arts include/understand three literary disciplines (trivium):

grammar;

rhetoric;

the dialectical one;

and four scientific disciplines (Quadrivium):

the arithmetic one;

geometry;

astronomy;

music.

The reader will find examples of problems mathematical posed by Alcuin on the following site: Noctes Gallicanae
See also: Liberal arts, Isidore of Seville, Bède Worthy the

The palatine school is a center of knowing and teaching, but also a place of production and copy of books. It delivers high level teaching to form the future laic and religious elites. It is also given the responsability to copy and preserve liturgical but such pagan works which are used for the training of the Latin literature and the liberal arts. The manuscripts are sent to the school since the abbeys of the kingdom to be copied there and conversely of the copies are given to the abbeys. These works are used for clerical or laic teaching given by the local school. This increased production of the writing, involves the appearance of very large libraries, like that of Angilbert, with the abbey of Saint-Riquier.

Whereas they was Italian scholars who represented the most influential group at the Carolingian court before the arrival of Alcuin, it is the Anglo-Saxon influence which develops with him. It forms great names of the following generation like Raban Maur or Théodulf. When he dies, in 804, it is one of its pupils, Théodulf, which succeeds to him as chief of the Palatine School. Rope Maur, is a monk Bénédictin, archbishop of Mainz (Germany) and a Théologie famous N. He is the author of the Encyclopédie Of the Nature of the things which gathers knowledge of its time, between 842 and 847. It is the of Universo , which would be the first encyclopedia of the Middle Ages, a work which will pass between the hands of many monks. He also wrote treaties of education and Grammaire and comments of the Bible. He is one of the most important professors and authors of the Carolingian Rebirth. One gives him the load of the school of Fulda, which gains in effectiveness and becomes one of the principal schools of Occident. Y are in particular formed Walahfrid Strabo, Loup of Tool bags and Otfried de Wissembourg. It is probably at this period that the grammar of Priscien, delivers very popular to the Moyen-âge, is compiled.

Théodulf, Visigoth (originating in current Spain), poet, theologist, is opposed to Constantinople on the question of the iconoclasme. The empire inherits artistic qualities of the artists fleeing Byzance. Charlemagne rests on him to reorganize the teaching which it organizes in three levels: parochial schools (free), episcopal schools (secondary level), monastic schools (for the executives of the Empire). Its knowledge in geometry was also very useful architecturalement. It reforms the system of hospitalization.

Louis Piles: Monastic reform

Benoit d' Aniane wire of an aristocrat Visigoth, founds a religious reform in Aquitaine, then unifies the Liturgie (817). He obtains Charlemagne letters of immunities and the recognition of the freedom of election of the abbot. He modifies and supplements the Règle of saint Benoît of Nursie with that of Colomban so that it can be applied uniformly and strictly through the empire. He writes the “harmony of the rules”, being based on his comments of the rule of saint Benoît de Nursie. It forms hundreds of monks who essaiment in all the empire to spread the rule bénédictine. With the support of Louis the Piles, which seeks to impose the religious unit of the Empire to constitute a framework with its territory, it prepares three Synode S treating of the reform of the monachism in 816, 817 and 818 -19. They impose the rule of saint Benoît, the free-election of the abbot. Named abbot of Tool bags and it works being studied and the diffusion of the traditional literature with same enthusiasm as those of humanistic of the Rebirth that one will meet later. He develops an important library by acquiring many original manuscripts, and by copying (and correcting often) the manuscripts borrowed from others Monastère S. He takes share with the controversy of the time about predestination and writes on the subject tribes quaestionibus , which treats freedom of thought, predestination and redemption. This work marks the theological thought during all Middle Ages. In addition, it maintains an abundant correspondence with the other scholars the time treating of literary subjects. One of its more shining pupils is Saint Adon (800-875), bishop of Vienna, author of the " Martyrologue" and of its " Universelle" chronicle;. After his crowning, Charles the Bald person thus lives with Quierzy-on-Oise, surrounded by many scholars: its court is most brilliant of the 3 Carolingian kingdoms: In addition to Walahfrid Strabo or Wolf of Tool bags she is attended by well-read men of great scale. Thus the philosopher and theologist of Irish origin, Jean Scot Erigène, which controls the Greek admirably, teaches the liberal arts and theology, translated into Latin of works of Pseudo-Denys Aréopagite and Maxime the Confessor. In 866 it works out a synthesis néo Plato ician: De Divisione Naturae which makes of him a precursor of Christian philosophy. Its great scholarship pushes Charles the Bald person to name it with the head of the Palatine School.

The chronicler Franc Nithard is the first cousin of Charles the Bald person, the grandson of Charlemagne and the son of the famous poet Angilbert, called " Homère of the Court of Charlemagne". Its advised and acute direction of the diplomacy encourages Charles on several occasions the Bald person to entrust missions of importance to him. Discharging some successfully, Nithard becomes one of the most influential advisers of the king. Knowing and studying works of the old authors (Salluste, Tite Live, Virgile, Tacit or Cicéron), Nithard undertakes to write in Latin, at the request of Charles the Bald person, a History of wire of Louis the Piles. A work for which it is useful, like made Eginhard for the Life of Charlemagne , its personal notes and official documents.

Hincmar, archbishop of Rheims from 845 to 882, has a considerable influence on Charles the Bald person, of which he becomes the adviser after the disappearance of Nithard, and of which he will be also, later, the executor. Strong personality, Hincmar is the founder of the hospital Saint Bernard and the college of the Good children. He is encouraged by the king with the drafting of many books. In Mirror of the princes , compilation of works of Holy Augustin, Holy Ambroise and Holy Gregoire, it gives not only a progress report on the royalty but also on the right of the sovereign to punish or gracier those which offended it. This test was probably inspired by the torment of the eyes burst that Charles the Bald person makes undergo, in 873, with his/her son rebels Carloman. In a work, written into 875, Hincmar requires of the high ranking authorities of the Church to protect the kingdom and the Richilde queen during the absence from Charles, party to receive the imperial sacring by Jean VIII in Rome. It inspires by the political thought of the time by its letters and the drafting of Of processes palatii : a table of the Carolingian institutions.

A structured empire facilitating the propagation of the knowledge

Organization of the administration of education

The capital of the empire is in its center, with Aachen, where Alcuin directs a school for the executives of the empire, which learn a minimum as regards administration there, of reading, of religion. The large ones of the kingdom send their sons to it to study there.

The Irish monachism and the introduction of the Règle of saint Benoît lead to the creation of many monasteries and schools in all the empire, in particular thanks to Benoît d' Aniane. These monasteries with their two schools interior and external, their library and their scriptorium are the base of the Carolingian rebirth. Charlemagne provides in its capitulary Admonitio Generalis of 789, “that in each évêché, each monastery, one teaches the psalms, the notes, the song, the comput, grammar and that one has carefully corrected books”. The number of schools increases further after the council of Mainz of 813 which orders the creation of rural schools to train young priests. The directives worked out at the court are communicated by the Capitulaire S.

Standardization of the writing

Charlemagne develops the use of the writing like means of dissemination of the information, and particularly the use of the Latin language. Being pressed on the British scholars as Alcuin the Latin medieval is standardized and incorporated new words (with Greek or Germanic roots) to be used as international language. Towards 770, the development by scribes of the Abbey of Corbis of a new writing, the small Caroline makes it possible to gain of legibility because the words are separate from/to each other, and the letters are formed better. Workshops of copy ( scriptoria ) develop in the Carolingian abbeys: Saint Martin's day de Tours, Corbie, Saint-Riquier… Knowledge is exchanged in all Europe. At the end of the 8th century and at the beginning of IXe, one had thus recopied Hippocrates with Saint-Gall, Pline in Corbie, Saint-Gall and Saint-Denis, Dioscoride in the Fleury-on-Loire, Galien in the Fleury-on-Loire and Saint-Gall, Columelle with Corbie, Palladius in Saint-Gall and Saint-Denis, Isidore with Tours, Fleury, Luxeuil and Saint-Gall, Apicius with Tours, Marcellus with Fulda, itself recopied in the North-East of France at the beginning of the 9th century, Cassiodore with Tours, Corbie, Saint-Gall, Saint-Denis, Alcuin with Tours, Fleury and Saint-Gall, Vitruve with Jarrow, Fulda and Reichenau… and with the reduction in the exchanges with the Mediterranean world because of loss of control of the Mediterranean by Byzance necessary the adoption of a currency struck with a more abundant ore in Europe makes than gold. In addition one needs a weaker currency of value adapted to the transactions. At the beginning of the reign of the pippinides the various parts of the empire use different currencies what slows down the exchanges. In 755, Pépin the Brief takes the control of Dorestadt and of the workshops of striking of currency clippings, the king affirms his monopoly to beat currency ordering the striking of a standardized money sum of money, decorated of his monogram. In the same spirit, Charlemagne institutes by capitulary into 794, a system based on a money mass: the delivers corresponds has a weight of 409 grams money. The ground and it book are used as money of account: a “ground of flour” is the quantity of flour which one can buy with 12 sums of money. This standardization of the currency facilitates the commercial transactions through the empire and thus increases the exchanges between the various areas. A true economic revolution is launched, the use of the currency accelerates and is attested even for modest exchanges. One of the implications is that it becomes profitable to produce farm surpluses likely to be sold. Way is led with the demographic development and the progressive change towards a more commercial, artisanal and town company.

The Carolingians took other measures to support the trade: they maintain the roads, support the fairs (Charles Martel authorizes the creation of rural markets in the vici as of 744: the Francs consider that there is no more emperor since the Irene empress made burst the eyes of her son Constantin VI and taken the capacity. That passes by a cultural radiation to the measurement of the Roman Empire or Byzance. That however goes beyond from a desire conscious of wanting to make revive the culture of old Rome. During the reign of Charlemagne, the controversy Iconoclaste divides the Byzantine Empire. Charlemagne is placed in the center, not allowing the complete destruction of the human images (Iconoclasme), but not going either until allowing their veneration (Iconodulie). This decision not to be Iconoclaste in theory, and to make it possible to use the human figures with moderation, has immense consequences, since it is by Carolingian art that the Romanesque art of the West and the Gothic art develop - if Charlemagne had adopted the iconoclasts, the history of the art of the West would have been very different, and it could not have profited from the contribution of the artists fleeing Byzance. The metalwork, the Sculpture on Ivory, the mosaic S and the Fresque S of this period remain.

Goldsmithery

The Francs are famous for works of goldsmitheries of long time. Many is carried out at the time Carolingian: the first statue reliquary of France goes back to 875 and represents Sainte Foix de Conques, iron the crown known as lombarde of kings d' Italie of 850, the throne of " Dagobert" from 850, the Chalice of gold and copper Tassilon with a silver decoration gone back to 781 and preserved in Austria at the cathedral of Krens. In front of adapting to the paganism which it must convert Christianity promotes the worship of the relics. Those Ci multiply and make it possible many abbeys to attract pilgrims. Let us quote the reliquary of the abbey of Enger of 800, the sacramentary one of Drogon going back to 850 and preserved at Metz, the hunting of St Vaast which goes back to 852, the portable furnace bridge of Adelhaus decorated with money plates with an enamel cross and encrusted with copper. the interlacings are niellos. This unit goes back to 850. Lastly, let us evoke the relics of Pip preserved at Conques and going back to 825.

Structure

Architecture makes considerable great strides: from 768 to 855 are built 27 cathedrals, 417 monasteries, and 100 palatine residences). The architectural art which is expressed there precedes the Romanesque art, symbiosis of the ancient designs which one finds in the basilicas and the rotundas and the designs of the Early middle ages (which there assistant readily of the turns). Carolingian architecture thus takes again the Roman elements, wisigothic and mérovingiens but precedes the great period of the Roman: it is qualified Art préroman. Carolingian and Romance period, it was preserved more than fifty manuscripts (whole or in fragments) of the great classic of architecture, written at the time of Auguste by the architect theorist Vitruve. However some of these monuments are built on the hexagonal level of the churches of the East. A cupola surmounts the building. The porch is arched and surmounted by a former church. The chorus of the building is placed at the east, in accordance with the Roman liturgy, which a second chorus identical to the west answers to which two apses are added. The decoration uses vegetable reasons, the foliages, braids and circles of various colors and employs elements of ancient architecture.

The Vitraux appear about year 800. At the 7th century, the furnaces of glassmakers multiply, in the frank Royaume representing an important production of glass. Extremely to know to them to make glass, the Mérovingiens take the practice to put panes at the churches. The goal is especially utility: the protection against the wind and of the bad weather and glass is thus not coloured. In 670, frank craftsmen are charged to put panes at the English churches, proof of their famous on the matter. These works of art are very expensive and the artists able to carry them out are present only in some centers like Aachen, Tours, Rheims, Metz, the Saint-Benoit-on-Loire… These manuscripts whose realization could last up to one year cost a fortune: For 400 pages of parchment, one needs a hundred sheep, very expensive inks (blue overseas requires crushed stones of Lapis-lazuli coming from Bactriane with the borders of minor Asia for example!), but to see ivory of elephant for certain covers.

Literature

The Carolingians encourage literary and poetic creations. In particular with the course Charlemagne Paul Deacon, Théodulf, Angilbert or Cathuulf compose of the poems including on light subjects. Later, under Louis the Piles or Charles the Bald person, works are centered on religious subjects (Héliand for example composes into 822-830 the " Life of Christ"), but one can quote the poems of Ermold the Black or Florus Diacre. In the same order of idea Paul Diacre is the author of many fables. The Carolingian literature gives the first epopees of the medieval Western literature: the Song of Hildebrand is the first epopee of the history as a High German made up into 820. Eginhard writes Vita and gesta Caroli Magni , Annales regnum Francorum and 62 Letters . Another biography of Charlemagne, the De Carolo Magno (or Gesta Caroli Magni ) is as famous as the " Vita Karoli" , its author is a monk of Saint-Gall, probably Notker the Stammerer. Nithard, the son of Angilbert and small son of Charlemagne is the author of a Histoire of wire of Louis the Piles in four books. Finally Hilduin (775-859), writes the chronicle of the Louis emperor Ist.

Encyclopedic works will be quoted: in particular Maur Rope which gathers knowledge of its time in De Rerum Natura or De Universo .

Certain works are more political and seek to advise the prince according to a Christian morals. For example Sédulius Scott, Irish poet, compose his Miroir of the prince into 848:

" C queant laxis Re sonare fibris Semi ruffle gestorum F muli tuorum Ground ve polluti the bii reatum S ancte Johannes"

End of the rebirth

Powerful and structured well, the Carolingian empire has a weakness however. In the absence of war the State is not enough rich to maintain its vassal. Charlemagne succeeded in maintaining the unit of the empire at the price of ceaseless wars, of an heightened surveillance of its counts and bishops whom it swears in. But his/her son Louis the Piles must concede grounds in freehold and either as usufruct for life as his/her father did it who thus recovered his grounds with dead of his vassal. The rules of equal share of the grounds between the heirs lead to the parcelling out of the empire after Louis the Piles. When the wire of Louis the Piles between-tear for the division of the empire, they must give more and more independence to their vassal to preserve their support. For example, king Charles the Bald person guarantees to his lords faculty to bequeath their grounds to their heir by the capitulary to Quierzy-on-Oise of June 16th, 877. The royal capacity weakens considerably and Europe is divided into principalities between which the communications decrease. The rebirth will on the whole have lasted a few decades and the ambitious cultural program of restoration wanted by Charlemagne will have had only one surface penetration of the company. It touches primarily the ecclesiastics and the high aristocracy. The teaching of the priests whose Charlemagne had done one of its priority very partially bore only its fruits. However the conversion of the occident to Catholicism is a success, paganism is in Net retreat, even if the Church had to adapt and accept the multiplication of the worship of the relics or the saints, who involve a multiplication of the pilgrimages (the Pèlerinage of Saint-Jacques-of-Compostelle starts about year 800). Economic and structural evolutions still not very visible are however launched. The institution of the money sum of money metamorphoses the economy and soon the company, Europe enters the feudal age…

Feudality

To maintain the unit of the Empire, Charlemagne introduces the ceremony of recommendation which imposed an oath of vassalage. It supervises closely its vassal which is inspected regularly by missi dominici and is convened annually to leave to shift. In addition, he conceded the loads only on a purely basis for life what made it possible to recover the grounds with dead of its vassal, which enables him to avoid the progressive loss of its possessions and to preserve a means of pressure on its vassal whose the pleasure of the grounds granted into precarious can be withdrawn. But his/her Louis son the piles breaks balance between the tax land goods and the land goods granted in pleasure to the nobility. Consequently, it is not enough any more rich to maintain its vassal and nothing any more attaches their natural inclinations of independence. Moreover military campaigns become less frequent after 820 and controls by the missi dominici rarefy and are less and less effective (they become expensive to maintain, are corruptible and the voyages at the time are painful): the control of vassal is made coward more and more. Moreover Charlemagne already accustomed to entrusting the grounds in Précaire to the son of its vassal to died of those Ci was. Gradually, the hereditary transmission becomes a practice and the concept of right according to which the ground and the loads belong to the sovereign is forgotten or neglected. The things still worsen when the wire of Louis the Piles between-tear for the capacity and must concede more and more autonomy with their vassal to preserve their support. It tries to preserve the imperial authority by all the means associating in particular the support of the ecclesiastics to which it concedes the possibility of beating currency. The final passage towards feudality is made when it guarantees to its vassal faculty to bequeath their grounds to their heir by the capitulary to Quierzy-on-Oise of June 16th, 877.

Change of the agricultural company

From 800, the military campaigns are done rarer and the economic model frankly based on the war is not viable any more. In the opposite direction, the slaves are émancipés as serfs managing a ground and remunerating their Master by part of their production or drudgeries and become more profitable (this evolution is done of as much better than the Church condemns the slave system between Christians). The difference between free peasants and those which are not it attenuates. The striking of silver money since several generations, and its homogenization in 781 by Charlemagne is an enormous progress: more adapted than the gold which is not appropriate that for very expensive transactions, the money sum of money allows the introduction of million producers and consumers into the trade-circuit. The peasant can resell surpluses, it is thus interested to produce more than what it is necessary to survive after having transferred part of his production to his lord, use of the manure, appearance of the collar of shoulder and horseshoe… In the same way the ecclesiastical landowners as laic provide plow, invest in equipment improving the productivity: water mills (to replace the grinding stones with arm used as long as the labor was servile), wine or oil presses (to replace pressing)… The outputs pass from 4 per 1 to 5 or 6 per 1. This progress releases from the labor for other activities. The population is protected better from the food shortages and consequently from the epidemics: mortality decreases. The introduction of the currency and a taxation to fixed amount has another effect: it becomes interesting to have children because of the released surpluses they increase agricultural production capacity and are less seen like mouths to nourish. The population growth and the increase in the agricultural production car-discuss in a virtuous circle: they are the key of the medieval revival. This metamorphosis is done gradually, its effects are still not very visible at the 9th century the more so as it is quickly slowed down by the feudal invasions and wars, but the agricultural revolution is in germ and it is concretized fully when they cease at the 10th century.

Growth of the cities

The farm surpluses monnayables generate an enrichment of certain owners and releases from the labor for the craft industry or the trade: The cities enlarge many boroughs are created. Capitulary of 743 reveals that there does not exist market in each évêché, hundred years later Charles bald person must require of each count to draw up the list of the markets in their county. If the agricultural revolution generated by the diffusion of the currency, way its effects slowed down initially by the invasions of the 9th century, those cause paradoxical to accelerate the process of reorganization of the great fields and grubbing and to enlarge the urban population.

Reinforcement of the economic and political influence of the abbeys

The intense development of the monachism with common rules (see Benoit d' Aniane), the introduction of a single writing (the Caroline) more readable, facilitate the transfer of knowledge and prepare the cultural, technical and demographic push of the 11th century. Initially, the disorders caused by incursions Vikings, sarrasines or Hungarian women and plunderings and private wars of the nobility inherent in the incipient feudal system, slow down considerably economic development and the cultural exchanges. Many episcopal, parochial or abbey loads are entrusted to the laic ones and the dark clergy in a major crisis still than at the 7th century. But large work missionary with borne his fruits and the abbeys which continue to have an irreproachable moral behavior acquire an extraordinary prestige. The culture does not progress any more but, the abbeys preserve their scriptoriums and the Carolingian cultural asset at the bottom of their libraries. In same time, the dissolution of the state, reinforces the abbeys which are the economic spearhead of the frank kingdoms. They are increasingly numerous to succeed in freeing itself from the supervision of the local nobility and can elect their own abbot. Those are organized in religious order around Cluny and acquire a political power and economic of first order: They are in measurement at the 10th century, to discipline the nobility by the movements of the Truce of God then of the Paix of God and to support the creation of stable conditions around the dynasties which end up dominating the organization clientelist which prevails in this context of birth of feudality. In a word, they will be the engines of the Renaissance of the year millet.

Towards the Rebirth of the year millet

Thus the Renouveau of the medieval occident of the year millet is prepared by the Carolingian rebirth. That Ci could not be summarized with an artistic epiphenomene quickly closed again by the invasions of the 9th century. It falls under a movement of economic, cultural revival and social deeper good. As from the 10th century, the security of broad territories by the dynasties ottoniennes and capétiennes and the establishment of a new social order supported by the clergy, as well as the thickening of the networks of economic exchanges and cultural, again make it possible the knowledge to be diffused. The projections technical, architectural, agricultural, artisanal and artistic begin again and Europe changes, démographiquement, socially and technically. The new styles pre-novels appear in Germany with the dynasty Otton ienne, in England with the Anglo-Saxon , like in France, Italy and Spain.

Sources and bibliography

Norman F. Cantor (1993). The Civilization off the Middle Old: has off completely revised and expanded edition Medieval history, the life and death off has civilization . HarperCollins.
Mortimer Chambers, Raymond Grew, David Herlihy, Theodore K. Rabb, Isser Woloch, The Western Experiment: To 1715 , 3rd edition, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1983
Martin Scott, Medieval Europe , New York: Dorset Near, 1964
Rich Pierre, the Carolingians, a family which made Europe , Paris, Hachette Literatures, 1993,
Jean Favier, Charlemagne , Paris, Fayard, 1999,
Histoire of Spain: the Kingdom Visigoth , France Ballade
Serge Lusignan. the kingdom of the Visigoths in the Iberian peninsula (of the 5th century with 711) , Site of the University of Montreal
Herbert Thurston. Worthy The Bede , The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume II
Michel Balard, Jean-Philippe Broom and Michel Rouche, the Middle Ages in Occident , Hatchet 2003,
Philippe Contaminates, Marc Bompaire, Stephan Lebecq, Jean-Luc Sarrazin, the medieval economy , Collection U, Armand Colin 2004,
Olivier Guyot Janin and Guillaume Balavoine, Atlas of the French history: Medieval France IXe-15th century , Editions Differently, Paris 2005,

See too

Carolingian Art
Carolingian Empire
Pippinides
Carolingiens
Charlemagne
Charles Martel
Pépin the Brief
Pépin of Herstal
Louis the Piles
Charles the Bald person
Palais of Aachen
the Carolingian period is not saved by the quarrel of Filioque: whereas the nicéenne confession had prevailed on heresies in Rome (Nestorianisme +…), then beaten the Arianisme with the wire of the conversion of the First kingdoms , the religious unit is lost again.

External bonds

virtual Exposure on Carolingian art Site of the National library of France: exposure giving an idea of the manuscripts of the Carolingian time.
Extracted works of Paul Deacon: Noctes Gallicanae
the encyclopedia of the nature of the things of Rope Maur: De Universo

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