Opinion: This overall article is already well rather long and should only be useful as an introduction for Canada. To preserve the concision of this article, consider it-you-likes the addition of points in the magnifying glasses being at the beginning of each chapter, i.e., Politique of Canada, Géographie of Canada, etc Merci.

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The Canada (marked in French and in English), second Country of the world by its surface, occupies the major part of the North America. It extends from is in west of the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific Ocean and towards north until the Arctic Ocean. Canada divides two borders with the the United States in the south and the North-West (Alaska).

Founded by the French explorer Jacques Cartier in 1534, Canada takes its origin as a French Colonie on the territory of current the town of Quebec initially occupied by the people autochtones. After one period of English colonization, the Canadian confederation was born from the union of three British colonies, which were consisted of the territories of the News-France. Today Canada is a Federal state of ten provinces and three territories which obtained its Indépendance the United Kingdom peacefully in a process which was spread out of 1867 with 1982.

Canada is a Constitutional monarchy today with parliamentary Régime, being defined as a bilingual nation and multicultural; the English and the French are, with equal statute, the Official languages. Advanced nation industrialized and technologically, its economy diversified rests mainly on the abundance of its Natural resources and on the Commerce carried out mainly with the the United States, country with which perdure a complex relation since colonial times and the beginnings of the Confédération.

Canada is currently composed of 10 provinces federate (a governor and a parliamentary room) and of 3 territories (a police chief). Only a province is mainly Francophone, the Quebec; a Bilingual province socially and legally, the New Brunswick and of 8 provinces mainly Anglophone S, so called “  the English Canada   ” by comparison with the French Canada. The Yukon Territory is officially bilingual (English and French). The Territories of the North-West, as well as the territory of Nunavut from which it is resulting, recognize 11 official languages, of which English and French.

See also: Amorce=Voir also, {{CURRENTYEAR}} in Canada, éphémérides and events for {{CURRENTYEAR}} in Canada

Origin of the name

The historians intend themselves today to say that the “ country of Canada ” indicated in the beginning the current city and immediate area of Quebec.

According to their research, the name “Canada” means “ cluster of huts ” (village or village iroquoien: agglomeration of long houses, with the roof rounded, made trunks, branches and barks, skins, necessarily not aligned, the whole surrounded by a palisade of piles) in the spoken language at the beginning of the 16th century by the Iroquoiens of the St. Lawrence which wintered with Stadaconé (Quebec), the Amerindian first that Jacques Cartier would have met (it was in Gaspé, in the summer 1534, their districts of summer).

At the end of the Second relation of Jacques Cartier (that bearing over the years 1535 and 1536), a language dictionary “of the countries and kingdom of Hochelaga and Canada differently dictates News-France”, teaches us that “ilz (sic) calls a Canada city”. This “city” (village) that, according to Cartier, these Iroquoiens name Canada , it is obviously Stadaconé. The two establishments which are Hochelaga and Stadaconé, Cartier says them each one “kingdom” because they each one are controlled by only one big boss (such in France, the king). The expression “News-France”, Verrazano used it in 1524 (in Latin, Nova Francia ) and Cartier uses it here to indicate the whole of the establishments of winter going from Stadaconé ( alias Canada) to Hochelaga, inclusively.

Jacques Cartier is thus the first to be used the word Canada , to indicate a territory, that which corresponds today to the town of Quebec and its areas bordering, whose Stadaconé is the principal village. And it calls Iroquoiens of the area of Quebec, the “Canadian ”. It is only as from the century according to whether one employs the word Canada to indicate all the space explored or occupied by the French in North America: Champlain will start then by writing “News-France vulgarly, known as Canada”, which implies that the name “Canada”, shorter, is already enough popular to carry it soon on the other denomination.

Books and European charts early apply this name, Canada, with the French settlement established along banks of the the St. Lawrence (mainly on the territory of the current Quebec), then Canada name is recovered by the authorities of the British Empire to indicate the majority of the contiguous provinces which they manage in North America.

History of Canada

See also: History of Canada, constitutional History of Canada, military History of Canada

Certain areas of the territory of current Canada are inhabited by the people autochtones since unmemorable times. The first European explorations as for them started on the coasts of Labrador and the island of Newfoundland, which were visited by the Vikings and the Basques since the millenium. The latter came to practice fishing there. Then, the Portuguese explorer João Fernandes Lavrador went along the littoral of Labrador about 1495, in company of the explorer, but without taking possession of the grounds.

“Canada”, itself, refers as for him at the origin with a French settlement located on the territory of the current city of Quebec and, as a French colony, constitutes one of the provinces of the News-France. The colony is founded along the banks of the Fleuve the St. Lawrence in 1534 at the time of discovered of Quebec by Jacques Cartier and the development of diplomatic relations with the Amerindians of the area, then it is necessary to await Tadoussac in 1600 to make a success of there the first establishment of strong permanent French, origin of the current village of the same name to the mouth of the Rivière Saguenay.

In 1750, France controls the three quarters of the territory of North America. The limit between the provinces of Louisiana and Canada is not clearly established and must be some share in the valley of the Ohio with Strong Duquesne (current Pittsburgh).

Inter alia moved by the control of the trade of the fur in the valley of Ohio, the British armies of New England attack the French on several occasions and penetrate on the territories of News-France. In Europe, mainly moved by European goals, the English and the French encounter four recoveries between 1689 and 1763. It is on this last date, following the conquest of Quebec by the English armies in 1759, that Canada becomes British colony.

Into 1791, this part of the British colonies is divided into two named provinces the High-Canada and the Low-Canada, in order to adapt the claims of the English-speaking come from the United States. Then these two colonies are amalgamated in 1840 in order to drown the French Canadians within the British culture following the Rebellions of 1837-1838. Then, as of the birth of the Confederation in 1867, the name “Canada” is officially adopted by the crown of England in the Acte of British North America to define new the Dominion, and to guard themselves against the expansionism American.

During the world wars, the Canadians fight as British soldiers in units separated often at the side from the Écossais and Australia NS. The statute of Westminster of 1931 fact of entering Canada the the Commonwealth and gives him larger political autonomy of the the United Kingdom. It loses then its statute of Dominion. This new autonomy makes it possible Canada to wait one week after the United Kingdom before entering the Second world war. The war sees the larger implication of the role of the federal state and opens the door with a more important implication of the federal state in the post-war period and the beginning of a new identity. In 1949, Newfoundland joined Canada like tenth province.

In 1982, the Canadian constitution is repatriated of London. The Loi of 1982 on Canada refers only to the name Canada, so that this last is currently the only legal name. This modification moreover is officialized by the name change of the national Festival which becomes in 1982 the Fête of Canada, thus replacing the old denomination of “Day of the Confederation”.

Currently, Canada is a Constitutional monarchy with a federal organization, and it counts 10 federated, called States organized provinces , and three territories. In 1999, the creation of the third territory, the Nunavut, is founded by taking again part of the Territoires of the North-West.

News-France (1534 - 1760)

Of Saint-Malo on the Armorican coasts on board two ships, Jacques Cartier and its crew of 61 men moves towards the Nouveau World where they visit Newfoundland, the Golfe of the St. Lawrence, the Îles-de-la-Madeleine as well as the Island-of-Prince-Edouard. Then finally, Cartier unloads in 1534 with Gaspé (called the “Cradle of Canada-French”), there plants a cross and takes possession of the ground in the name of the king of France, François 1 {{er}}. Thus, Jacques Cartier becomes the second agent of king de France to come to America following the voyage from Giovanni da Verrazano in 1524, which skirts the littoral extending from Florida to Nova Scotia and which becomes the first to use the denomination “News-France”.

At the time of its second voyage, in 1535, on board Large Hermine (Small Hermine and the Swivel supplement its vessels), Cartier goes up initially the river until Stadaconé (Quebec), where it re-examines Donnacona, chief of the Iroquoiens of the St. Lawrence (people now missing or assimilated, that one often confuses with twists with the Huron Iroquois and the ), that it had already met in Gaspé at the time of its first voyage. It indicates the territory around Stadaconé under the name of " country of Canada" (approximately, Quebec and its area), denomination which will be generalized thereafter with all the valley of the St. Lawrence, then finally with the one of the colonies of the News-France. Then it goes up the river until Hochelaga (today Montreal), stopped by the rapids of Lachine. At the time of its third and last voyage in 1541, Jacques Cartier explores the grounds of Canada in addition to its neighbouring areas, and founds there Charlesbourg-Royal with the mouth of the river Cape-Red, at the western end of the Cape to Diamonds, the Iroquoien village of Quebec being at the end is of this Cape .

Although it is not proven yet that Giovanni Caboto unloaded in Canada and Terra Nova (Newfoundland), several French explorers return to explore the New World after the departure of Jacques Cartier, whose Jean-François of Rocque Roberval which in 1542 explores the Royaume of Saguenay and which founds France-Roy in the site of Charlesbourg-Royal left vacant. In 1555, Nicolas Durand de Villegagnon tries to establish a colony in France the Antarctic in bay of Rio de Janeiro, but is quickly dislodged by the Portuguese. Then of 1562 with 1565, the French Huguenots Jean Ribault and Rene de Goulaine de Laudonnière try to colonize what is today the South Carolina and the Florida, but are massacred by the Spanish . With the research of the Passage of the North-West, Martin Frobisher discovers as for him the artic region of the island of Baffin, in particular the Baie of Frobisher (Iqaluit) in 1576, in the name of England, which will become later a territory of Canada. In the same intention, Spain employs the Greek explorer in 1592, which sails towards north starting from the Mexico current and reached water of the Détroit of Juan de Fuca (named in its honor in 1788 according to its Spanish denomination) located between the south of the Vancouver Island and the North-West of the Actual position of Washington. It however stops its voyage before reaching the Interior Passage in the archipelagoes and the fjords located at the west of the current Colombia-British.

Between 1598 and 1603, Henri IV load Troilus of the Rock of Mesgouez, as general lieutenant of the countries of Canada, Newfoundland, Labrador and Norembègue, to establish a new station of colonization with a few tens of men and women in News-France. This second attempt at colonization will be carried out on the island of Sand (island located at broad of the current Nova Scotia).

After many missed attempts (whose News-Angouleme with Long Island and Saint-Augustine in Florida), the French establish finally their first estival commercial counter with Tadoussac (Quebec) in 1600, from a monopoly granted by the king to Pierre Chauvin, sior of Tonnetuit. Then comes then, by Pierre Dugua of Mons the foundation of Royal Port in 1605, first capital of the Acadie, in the presence of the explorer-cartographer Samuel de Champlain. This last, already come to explore the Large River of Canada in 1603, founds Quebec in 1608, elected by Pierre Dugua of Mons, “  where the river rétrécit  ”, according to name algonquienne, and it makes of it the capital of the News-France also known as the “  Canada  ”. Quebec will be, until today, the first place inhabited at the year continuously by French and their descendants, in North America. Champlain goes up also the river in 1615 until - beyond of Sault Saint-Louis (Rapides of Lachine), with the Baie Georgienne (left western the Lake Huron) and sails on water of the Rivière Richelieu until what today is the Lac Champlain. Throughout its tour in News-France, it establishes in particular with the Innus-Montagnais, the Huron-Wendats Algonquins and the , of excellent diplomatic relations and commercial, and acts, of office (not in title), like first governor of News-France.

However, the exploring Europeans bring many diseases which, by trade route, are propagated quickly within the populations autochtones, making devastations among those. The French colonists, arriving often very sick in boats which are not very healthy, are saved by the Amerindian remedies. Thus, to look after the Scurvy, Iroquoiens of the St. Lawrence propose in Cartier decoctions of bark of white cedar, called annedda .

After its return of France in 1617, Samuel de Champlain revien in Quebec with the apothecary and plowman Louis Hébert. This one (...) accompanied by its wife, her son, his two daughters and of her brother-in-law. The arrival of this family provides the foundations of the French colony in News-France .

The Récollets, first catholic missionaries in News-France, arrive in 1615 and are seen offering a ground to the accesses of the Rivière Saint-Charles in 1620 to found a convent there. Although the site will be left vacant during a few years, Récollets will return in 1670 and will be seen reassigning the site that they will name Our-Lady-of-Angels. In 1692, Jean-Baptiste of the Cross of Chevrières, Monseigneur de Saint-Vallier then bishop of Quebec since 1685, will acquire of the site and will found the general hospital of Quebec there the following year (today, the hospital forms a wedged and separate municipality of Quebec under the name of Our-Lady-of-Angels).

With an aim of evangelization and education of the Amerindians, the Jésuites arrive to News-France in 1625. They will found the Collège of Quebec in 1635 to inform there the Huron French boys and become the Christian ones. Although their principal goal consists of the religious conversion of the Amerindian tribes, it remains that the role of the missionaries in one of is discovered territory thanks to their relations with the Huron ones. However, in 1648, Iroquoiens, supported by the English, will tackle the missions of Saint-Joseph and Saint-Michel in Huronnie, and will massacre there the catholic fathers, of which Jean de Brébeuf, known today under the denomination of the Saint-Martyr-Canadians.

It is in 1627 that the Régime seigneurial is created, principal mode of administration of the grounds of News-France. This system is inspired by the feudal Régime of France under which the censitaire (or living) is depend on the lord. Founded by Armand Jean of Plessis, Cardinal of Richelieu, the Company of the Hundred-Associates to which belonged Samuel de Champlain, sees itself granting the statutory duties and seigneuriaux and this, in addition to the right of distribution of the grounds. Thus the territory of News-France is divided into seigniories, each one facing a river, handing-over to the colonists highest offerer in order to exploit of them the richnesses, which will become economic entities essential with their survival. Another material change during this year: the Company of the Hundred-Associates introduces the Coutume of Paris which, in 1664, will become obligatory under the terms of the royal edict creating the Compagnie of the Western Indies. This single code of law will thus come to standardize the relationship between the citizens with the size of the colony, in particular in the commercial and civil businesses.

To the first conquest of 1629, News-France passes under British domination when the merchant Sir David Kirke, in company of his brothers, takes possession of the fort and Château Saint-Louis after the attack on the town of Quebec where he summons Samuel de Champlain with the capitulation. This last is taken along of force to Great Britain to negotiate the terms of the transfer of the French territories in America. However, after one period of three years tergiversation, this one is released, and the England restores News-France in France in 1632 during the signature of the treated Saint-Germain-in-Bush hammer. On his return in 1633, Samuel de Champlain makes build the church Our-Lady-of-Recouvrance (on the site of Place-Royal in the Low-city of Quebec) and names thus it to underline the fact that France (...) to recover its colony .

In 1634, the town of Three-Rivers is founded by some Laviolette (of which we do not know anything else, if not which he is an emissary of Samuel Champlain), on northern bank of the river to the confluence of the three channels drawn by the Rivière Saint-Maurice, halfway between Quebec and the future site of Montreal. This site was, since the beginning of the century, a strategic place for the draft of the furs, with development towards the North-West. And it is in 1639 that the first nuns of the congregation of the Ursulines are established in News-France in the area of Quebec, to found there the first school for girls in North America. In 1697, they will be established with Three-Rivers and, with the assistance of the bishop of Quebec, will buy of the governor of Three-Rivers Claude de Ramezay, a house in which they will have the role of opening a school and a hospital.

During the widening of the borders in vacant grounds and development of diplomatic relations with the Algonquien S, the French are with the catches with the threat of the British offensives and iroquoises. It is thus in the aim of protection the colonists that City-Marie (Montreal), founded in 1642 by Paul de Chomedey de Maisonneuve is set up on an island with the foot of the Royal Mont. And it is in this same year that Jeanne Mance founds the hospital of City-Marie, first Hospital. Although concerning the laic state, she is always assisted by the Sisters of mercy of Saint-Joseph. In 1653, Sieur de Maisonneuve invites Marguerite Bourgeoys to settle in City-Marie to become teacher there. She makes build in this same year the Chapelle Our-Lady-of-Good-Help (in the current Old man-Montreal) and will found the congregation Notre-Dame in 1659.

After the massacres of the Jesuits, Charles Moyne de Longueuil and Pierre Picoté de Belestre undertake, as from 1648, a series of diplomatic forwardings in countries iroquois, which will lead to the forwarding carried out by the governor Daniel de Rémy de Courcelles in 1666 and who will put definitively fine at the threat iroquoise. However, whereas the attacks iroquoises and English intensify and become increasingly imminent during these years, several French devote themselves to the defense of the colony and rise with the row of the heroes of News-France. Most known will undoubtedly be Adam Dollard of Ormeaux, Sieur of Ormeaux and ordering garrison of the Fort of City-Marie, who will go in 1660, at the time of the battle Sault Length, with a team of young soldiers at the height of Sault of the Boiler on the Rivière of Outaouais, in order to defend News-France against the invasion iroquoise. Although he will die in the combat, it nevertheless will be recognized to have pushed back the invasion. Its name is well anchored still today in the imaginary one of the French-speaking people of Quebec and Ontario which celebrate it each year with one bank holiday in May. Then a 14 year old young woman of the name of Marie-madeleine Jarret of Verchères will defend, in 1692 during eight days, the fort of Verchères thanks to a back and forth pass and clothes of soldiers while making accept the attackers that the fort is filled men whereas only one soldier will take care of it.

Between 1654 and 1656, Medard Chouart of the Currant bushes widens the limits of News-France by exploring the territories of what is today the north of Ontario in addition to those of the circumference of Hudson Bay and becomes one of the first Europeans to reach the Higher Lac. It goes back there in 1659 with Pierre-Spirit Radisson in order to exploit the trade of the fur there. However, on their return in 1660, they are reprimands by the governor Pierre de Voyer d' Argenson, Viscount of Mouzay for illegal trade.

Like the very large majority of the pionnières families of Canada, which are established in particular with the Île of Orleans, Charles Aubert of Chesnaye arrives to News-France at the current of the years 1650. As from this moment, it will develop the economic activity of the colony, in particular while becoming the first business man of Canada and this, by creating several trade and by acquiring the property rights of companies of draft of furs, but also while becoming one of the largest lords and landowners of Canada.

Shortly after the beginnings of the construction of the Basilica Holy-Anne-of-Bowsprit in 1661, Monseigneur François of Montmorency-Laval, temporary governor of News-France on two occasions, become the first bishop of Quebec by melting the Séminaire of Quebec in 1663, at the origin of the first university of Canada and the oldest French-speaking university in America, the Université Laval. And it is into 1672 that one will see the beginnings of the construction of the Basilique Notre-Dame of Montreal thanks to the priests of Saint-Sulpice.

In 1665, Jean Heel, called the builder, is named by Jean-Baptiste Colbert under commission of the king Louis XIV as first intendant of News-France. At the time of his arrival, the king also makes come from the military troops in order to defend the colony against the threats iroquoises. Thus the lieutenant-general Alexandre de Prouville, marquis de Tracy, makes build three forts along the Rivière Richelieu: the Strong Richelieu with the current site of the town of Sorel-Tracy, the Strong Holy-Therese close to Carignan and Strong Midsummer's Day close to the current city to Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu. Always in the spirit of his mission of building the colony, Jean Talon proposes moreover to found the sovereign Conseil within a royal government and to create courts of justice in the towns of Montreal, Quebec and Three-Rivers. In 1666, Jean Talon carries out the first census of News-France and, following the conclusions which are drawn from it, it sets up series of measure of compensation and imposition in order to encourage the marriage rate and the birthrate. It makes inter alia coming from France 800 women, commonly called the " Girls of Roy " because equipped by the king, which are accommodated by Marguerite Bourgeoys. Throughout its intendance, he encourages the colonization of the valley of the St. Lawrence, while creating there and by allotting most of the seigniories of News-France, just like the governors who will follow. Thus starting from the end of first half of the 17th century and throughout second half, one will attend the beginning of the formation of the current areas of Quebec with the arrival of the French colonists and the development of the trade of the fur. Thus, with the sedentarisation of the new Canadian colonists and the draft of the fur, the site of several current historical regional centres will be fixed. So News-France will attend the birth of the cities such as Bay-Saint-Paul, Blainville, Boisbriand, Boucherville, Châteauguay, Lachute, Laval, Lavaltrie, Lévis, Longueuil, Matane, Montmagny, Repentigny, Rimouski, River-of-Wolf, Seven-Islands, Terrebonne, Varennes and Vaudreuil-Dorion, like Tuque more with north, Belœil on the Richelieu river and Saguenay in the fjord of Saguenay.

Jean Talon diversifies moreover the economy thanks to the mercantile system established between News-France, the metropolis and the French West Indies, and it increases the limits of News-France while charging with the explorers with studied new territories. Thus the runner of wood Louis Jolliet and the father Jacques Marquette are sent in exploration along the valley of the Mississippi. While returning from their forwarding, they stop on the site of the current city of Chicago (not of passage between the Big lakes of Canada and the basin of the Mississippi) and there create a permanent station of draft of fur. However, it is in 1682 that Rene Robert Cavelier of the Room will take possession of the places and will name the territory extending from the Big lakes to the Gulf of Mexico of the name of Louisiana in the honor of king de France. Moreover, Jean Talon sends two teams to the east in order to find a solution to connect Acadie and Canada by terrestrial road. In the same line of exploration, Charles Albanel and Paul Denys of Saint-Simon are recruited to explore the Hudson Bay and to support there the sovereignty of France on this area at the time when the Compagnie of Hudson Bay begins its activities there. Simon François Daumont de Saint-Lusson for its part has the mission of exploring the area of the Outaouais and the basin of the Big lakes, mainly constituting the whole of the Canadian area of the Pays of in Top.

Directed by Pierre de Troyes, the Canadian explorer Pierre LeMoyne d' Iberville is sent in forwarding to the Baie James and thus goes in 1686 in the area of the Hudson Bay with for mission of dislodging there the English who had established there the Company of Hudson Bay in 1670. The latter had unduly taken possession of the territories surrounding the water level after treason of Medard Chouart of the Currant bushes and of Pierre-Spirit Radisson at the place of France. These two French explorers had aroused the interest of England in order to take the control of the trade of the fur in the area in 1668 after the refusal of Louis XIV to grant the licenses of exploitation to them. The only voyage from England in the area was done in 1610 when Henry Hudson sailed on water of Hudson Bay. This last had however established only one winter camping on bank of bay since taken by the ices, without exploration of the territories, then was left for died in spring at the time of the mutiny of its crew which turned over to England.

The competition for the territories, the naval bases, the Fur and the fishing becoming increasingly wild, many wars burst implying the French, the Dutchmen, the British and the tribes Amerindian like allied. Thus, the XVIII {{E}} century will be characterized mainly by the intercolonial wars (named in New England) which appears between the French, with for allied the Huron ones and Algonquins, and the Dutchmen - at the beginning - as well as the British thereafter, which have for allied the confederation iroquoise, in order to define the control of the trade of the fur, in particular in the valley of Ohio. These intercolonial wars will be perpetrated approximately at the same time as the four Franco-British wars in Europe between 1689 and 1763.

In the aim of protection the town of Quebec against New England, Louis de Buade, count of Frontenac and governor of News-France, makes build the first enclosure of the Citadel of Quebec in 1690. In October of this same year, the Frontenac governor rejects the offer of rendering of the city and succeeds in pushing back the British of William Phips with the battles of Quebec. Moreover in 1695, with the current site of Kingston in Ontario, this one takes again the construction of the Fort Frontenac which had been destroyed in 1688 by Iroquois, whereas the old one extremely had been built after negotiations between the governor Frontenac and a delegation iroquoise in 1673 in order to extend the trade of the fur in the Countries in Top and to protect City-Marie against the English.

In consequence of the first Franco-British war - the War of the league of Augsburg, the Traité of Ryswick of 1697 widens the borders of News-France, in particular thanks to the recognition by the Spain of the western part of Saint-Domingue (Haiti) as being French possession. Then, in this same year, Pierre LeMoyne d' Iberville is chosen by France to turn over to discover the mouth of the Mississippi river and to colonize the Louisiana, which is coveted by the British. It founds there the first settlement close to bay of Biloxi, in company of his brother Jean-Baptiste Moyne de Bienville. This last will found La Nouvelle-Orléans in 1718.

During the same time of exploration which extends towards the Pays from Illinois in Louisiana and at the time when the French try to more colonize the territories of the south to face the British threat in the valley of Ohio, Antoine Laumet of Mothe, Sieur de Cadillac, founds in 1701 the town of Détroit with the construction of the Fort Pontchartrain. The town of Windsor, on other bank of the River Strait, will be populated in 1748 at same this fort, whereas the Fort Rusted is set up in 1750 with the current site of the town of Toronto under the ordinance of the governor Jacques-Pierre de Taffanel of Jonquière, marquis of Jonquière.

After the British victory with the War of succession of Spain, the English seize, at the time of the Traité of Utrecht in 1713, of Saint-Christophe in the Antilles, of Newfoundland, of Hudson Bay and Acadie, then lead to the complete destruction of the capital of the latter, Port-Royal (Annapolis Royal). The territories of Acadie will form a new English colony which will take the name of Nova Scotia. However, by fault of an exact evaluation of the surface of the territory by the English, the French preserve Acadie partly - in particular the territories constituting the current New Brunswick, Isle Midsummer's Day (Island-of-Prince-Edouard) and Isle royal (island of Cape-Breton the), on which they undertake the construction of the Forteresse of Louisbourg which becomes about it in 1718 the capital. At the time of the War of succession of Austria, the British from New England will capture the fortress in 1745, but the latter will be restored in France during the signature of the treated of Aachen in 1748. The following year, the English soldiers will found the town of Halifax by creating a military outpost there in order to populate British Nova Scotia of colonists.

For the period of peace which follows the treaty of Utrecht, in addition to the construction of the fortress of Louisbourg and the foundation of Port-the-Joy (today the town of Charlottetown) by the Acadian ones, the colonists of News-France build the Chemin of Roy in 1737 in order to connect Quebec, Three-Rivers and Montreal on northern bank of the river. This way becomes the first motor-road in Canada and is thus named in the hope which the king will borrow it one day. As from 1720, the fortifications of the town of Quebec are in addition set up. Moreover, French colonization starts to extend along the Rivière Boiler, which leads directly to the colonies of the New England starting from the town of Quebec, and consequently develops the area of the Beauce going even until the current site of Lake-Mégantic. Then, in 1738, News-France increases its territory of more beautiful out of unknown grounds with the exploration of the Western Canadian. The area is explored for the first time thanks to Pierre Gaultier, lord of Varennes and Vérendrye, which makes build the Fort Red with the current site of the town of Winnipeg. In 1740, his/her François son reaches the Rocky Mountains and explores the current areas of the Montana and the Wyoming. After the War of succession of Austria, in 1748, Pierre de Rigaud of Vaudreuil, then governor of Montreal, receives a seigniory of the king Louis XV on the grounds of the current city of Saint-Hyacinthe. This gift of France becomes the last legacy in Canada.

News-France extends henceforth from the Rocky Mountains to the the Appalachian Mountains. However, in order to take the control of the trade of the fur and to prevent the expansion of Catholicism in America, the British try of more beautiful to seize the territories of News-France, in particular while trying to go in the valley of Ohio. When the Guerre Seven Year old bursts in 1756 between France and the Great Britain in Europe, the war will thus make already rage in America.

Thus, the War of conquest begins in the month from May 1754 when Coulon de Jumonville is sent in reconnaissance mission to know if the French territory (in the Actual position of Pennsylvania) is indeed invaded by the English and, if necessary, to deliver with the latter a summation of withdrawal in the name of the king Louis XV. In this dispute which will be known as being the Affaire Jumonville and the direct cause of the release of the war, George Washington is shown by the French to have opened fire on this emissary of king de France. This conflict has as a consequence the Bataille of Strong Necessity in July of this same year. During the latter, the commander of the Strong Duquesne (current Pittsburgh), Claude-Pierre Pécaudy de Contrecœur, issues the ordinance of arrest of George Washington by a quota of soldiers ordered by Louis Coulon de Villiers, thus balancing himself by the first French victory.

Then, in 1755, the British soldiers directed by Robert Monckton open an offensive and lead to the Bataille of Strong Beauséjour in the village “the Elbow” in Acadie (site of the current city of Moncton). The latter will lead to the Déportation of Acadian the (called the Great Disturbance) by the English, in this same year, starting from the village of Large-Pre in the basin of the Mines. Then, in 1758, Great Britain will force with rendering the French of the fortress of Louisbourg, which will become a strategic point for the catch of the town of Quebec.

A series of forwardings and battles will follow one another for the catch of the valley of Ohio, during which such an amount of British that the French will know victories and defeats. Among the most decisive battles of the war of conquest on this territory, one can name, inter alia, the battles of Monongahela, the Bataille of the Lake George, the Bataille of Strong Bull, the Bataille of Strong Oswego, the Expédition Kittanning, the Bataille of Strong William Henry, the Bataille of Strong Chime, the Bataille of Strong Frontenac, the Bataille of Strong Duquesne, the Bataille of Strong Ligonier and the Bataille of Strong the Niagara (last major battle for the possession of the valley of Ohio).

June 26th, 1759, the seat of the town of Quebec begins when the English pose foot in the island of Orleans. With the first attempt at unloading for the catch of Quebec, the English however know a defeat at the time of the Bataille of Beauport in the month of July 1759. In September of the same year, the British troops unload with the Handle with the Fuller, and of the soldiers climb cliff of Cape to Diamonds. The Bataille of the plains of Abraham becomes one of the most determining battles of the war of conquest and leads to the final catch of the town of Quebec by the general James Wolfe on Louis-Joseph de Montcalm, marquis de Montcalm.

At the time of the Battle of Holy-Foy, the governor of News-France and François Gaston de Lévis, knight of Lévis succeed in pushing back the British of the general James Murray. However, the British reinforcements will arrive before those of France and will lead successively to the capitulation of Three-Rivers and that of Montreal in September 1760 by the governor Pierre de Rigaud of Vaudreuil de Cavagnial, marquis de Vaudreuil, under the conditions of the general Jeffery Amherst, some time after the Bataille of the Thousand-Islands. A last hope however was given by France to the colonists of the News-France to the month of July 1760. A small armed fleet was sent in the Baie of Heats, but was confronted with a vain battle, the Bataille of Ristigouche.

During three years, News-France is dominated by an English military regime, then following the British victory with the Guerre Seven Year old, Great Britain definitively adapts Acadie, Canada and the oriental party of Louisiana (between the Mississippi and the Appalachian Mountains) to the Traité of Paris in 1763.

Thus, the News-France ends and, although several vestiges of this last period remain still today after the sale with the American of the remainder of the Louisiana in 1803 by Napoleon Bonaparte, the territory of the islands Saint-Pierre-and-Miquelon remains the only French possession in North America. As from 1763, the acadian and Canadian French colonists are cut of all bonds with the metropolis by the British army. At least until in the years 1960, this situation will thus lead the acadian population and Canadian-Frenchwoman to a shortness of provisions, an unconditional tender of survival since cut of any military and different defense, and to an impoverishment vis-a-vis the English who take possession of the grounds of the French and this, while being continuously supplied by the British metropolis.

Provisional British military regime (1760 - 1763)

Whereas France and Great Britain are always in war in Europe, News-France and New England leave a war which lasted nearly seven years. As the administrative decisions and policies concerning the colonies are taken by the respective metropolises, the general Jeffery Amherst, as commander-in-chief of the British army in North America, establishes a provisional military regime in News-France. This last does not comprise any reform in order not to cause the rising of the Canadians.

For this period, the Bataille of Signal Hill puts definitively fine at the French presence at Midsummer's Day of Newfoundland in 1762. This same year, France secretly yields Louisiana of the west of the Mississippi river, including La Nouvelle-Orléans, in Spain by the treated of Fontainebleau. This transfer is carried out in order to prevent that the territory does not fall to the hands from Great Britain, but the territory will be reassigned in France in 1800, three years before its sale with the Americans. After the treated of Paris of 1763, certain Acadian will be established in the area which they will name Acadiane, but they will discover quickly that the territory will be now Spanish possession. Others will return on the acadian grounds, thus joining those there being hidden throughout the ethnic Nettoyage. However, they will be constrained by the British army to disperse in small groups and they will thus colonize the current acadian areas of the Island-of-Prince-Edouard, of Nova Scotia, of New Brunswick, of Quebec and Newfoundland. This period will mark the beginning of the rebuilding of a “Acadie News” for the acadian people and will lead to the “acadian Rebirth” in the middle of the XIXe century with the creation of institutions and national symbols.

Province of Quebec (1763 - 1791)

After the English conquest in America and the end of the War Seven year old in Europe, the News-France disappears completely and gives place to the British Empire. By the royal Proclamation made in 1763 pennies commission of the king George III, Canada changes name and becomes off the Province Quebec ; the first civil government is instituted there with a general governor at his head taking again the role of the Gouverneur and the intendant of News-France, and the territory is limited to the base of settlement of the valley of the Fleuve the St. Lawrence. During the period, the Nova Scotia will extend on the near total from the territory from the Acadie until 1784, the colonies of the Island-of-Prince-Edouard and the Île of Cape-Breton the will be created, and one will see to increase the borders of the Ground of Rupert.

From 1763 to 1766, the Amerindians of the area of Outauais raise themselves against the British, which is known today as being the Rébellion of Pontiac. During the latter, the English soldiers start a biological Guerre near the indigenous population by distributing covers infected by the virus of the Variole in the strong Amerindians.

In the Province of Quebec, the civil rights Canadian-French are reduced in spite of the agreement of capitulation of the town of Montreal. The Canadian institutions are abolished, whereas British institutions and courts of justice are established gradually. Consequently, the French Canadians cannot exert their religion - thus the Serment of the test is obligatory for any person wanting to occupy a civil load - and the use of the Coutume of Paris (common law originating in the North of France) is replaced by the Common law , common law British.

Since 1763, two great political movements make surface: the movement of restoration where the French Canadians ask the protection and the recognition of their civil laws and for monk, and the movement of reform in the British merchants come to settle in the colony where one asks for the immediate establishment of the British institutions such as a room of legislative assembly. In front of the threats of insurrection in the Province of Quebec, under the pressure of the Catholic church and for practical reasons, London proclaims finally the Acte of Quebec in 1774 pennies the recommendations of the governor Guy Carleton. This new act widens the borders of the colony by including the territories of the current Ontario and the valley of Ohio. Moreover, the Acte of Quebec gives again with the French Canadians certain privileges such as the conservation of the mode seigneurial as well as the right to practice the Catholic religion and to use the Coutume of Paris to govern the civil trade and reports/ratios. The Serment of the test is abolished, but the criminal and penal right British however is maintained. Moreover, one prohibits the Canadians from restoring the bonds with the motherland.

With the battles of Quebec of 1775, the Americans attack the British based in Quebec and vainly try to seize the city in order to raise the French Canadians against Great Britain and to gain their support in the search of the independence of the United States. In spite of this defeat, the town of Montreal and the forts of the Richelieu river are however constrained with rendering. The continental Congress, assembled legislative commune of the thirteen colonies of New England, had tried twice to recruit the French Canadians, but the majority of the latter decided to remain neutral of the opinion of the catholic clergy. The revolutionary forces are withdrawn after the conflict. Then, at the time of the Countryside of Saratoga in 1777, those return and lead a series of battles for the takeover of Hudson Bay, but must move back at the time of the defeat at the second Bataille of Saratoga to the autumn of this same year.

Although the movement of reform made slackening for the period of the Guerre of independence of the United States of America, it returns in force after the signature of the treated of Paris of 1783 which puts an end to the war. This protest movement is all the more amplified when nearly 50.000 loyal supporters of the Plain Empire immigrates in the colonies of the Province of Quebec, of the Nova Scotia, the Island-of-Prince-Edouard and Newfoundland in order to remain faithful to the British Crown. A parliamentary constitution project will be drawn up and will lead to the establishment of a legislative assembly in 1791.

In addition, the territories preserved by the British Empire in North America after the war of American independence, including/understanding the whole of the Loyal supporters taking refuge there, will be henceforth known like component the British North America. The major part of the Loyal supporters will settle in the west of the province of Quebec, along the Lake Ontario and of the Archipel of the Thousand-Islands, melting inter alia the current cities of Belleville, Brockville and Cornwall, while more populating the site of the town of Kingston. However, more in the east, as the Loyal supporters are hardly welcome in Nova Scotia, the Western part of this one is detached in order to form a new colony, the New Brunswick, which accommodates them in 1784. The Loyal supporters will be installed in particular on the acadian sites of the current cities of Fredericton and Midsummer's Day. Moreover, with the beginning of the Conquest of the West and the transfer of the territories of the south with the country lately formed of the the United States of America by the United Kingdom, the Province of Quebec is forced to reduce the limits of its territory. Thus, it loses the valley of Ohio, and the new borders of the south are defined by the natural barriers which are the Big lakes and the Rivière the Niagara.

High-Canada and Low-Canada (1791 - 1840)

In order to adapt the anglophone loyal supporters who took refuge in the west of the province of Quebec, the latter is divided by the constitutional Acte of 1791 into two distinct colonies, the High-Canada and the Low-Canada. High-Canada corresponds to current Ontario, mainly composed of the Loyal supporters of the Plain Empire resulting from the war of American Independence. Low-Canada corresponds to current Quebec, and one finds a majority of named French-speaking people there “the French Canadians”. Like all other colonies, High-Canada has its Lieutenant-governor named by the General governor. In order to protect the capital from the American attacks, will move them of Newark () in York (Toronto) at the time of the mandate of John Serious Simcoe, whereas this last founds London in 1793 for also making the capital of it, but in vain. Low-Canada as for him is directed by the sitting General governor himself with Quebec, capital of British North America.

Although each colony is theoretically a Démocratie having its legislative Assemblée elected by the population - the Chambre from assembly of Low-Canada and it - the latter does not have any real capacity. The mode of State is a Monarchie whose Crown is with London and of which the representation is done via the general governor and of the lieutenant-governor. Moreover, contrary to High-Canada where all the members of the legislature (including it) are English - the constitutional act creates the Legislative council of Low-Canada whose members are not elected and named by the general governor. This provision thus causes to create a double chamber system with two legislative rooms, where the Legislative council has as a role to counterbalance and control the legislative power given in the majority Canadian-Frenchwoman of Low-Canada via the democratic system and this, by naming British pars.

Moreover, the government of the two colonies is composed of the Executive council of Low-Canada and of which the advisers are named by the general governor in Low-Canada and the lieutenant-governor in High-Canada. This situation will thus lead the government policy high and low-Canadian to a form of Ploutocratie throughout the existence of two Canadas. Thus, the Clicks Castle, name given to the government low-Canadian, will be made up of people of the anglophone elite montréalaise, whose most prominent figures will undoubtedly be John Molson and James McGill, in order to serve only the commercial and different interests of an small group of anybody of the English high society. Whereas to High-Canada, the Family Compact (Pact of Family) will lead a policy monarchist and ultra-preserving, of which the goal will be to establish the British model, to paralyze the French Canadians and to abolish Catholicism. The bishop Anglican John Strachan will be the most notable figure and will see his influence growing after the Guerre of 1812.

Thus, two decades after the creation of two Canadas, Canada plays a significant part at the time of the War of 1812 during which the the United Kingdom vainly tries to reconquer the territory of the the United States of America. He dissociates himself, inter alia, at the time of the Bataille of Queenston Heights to the American unloading on the Niagara river, of where the city is driven back with the capitulation, of the Bataille of the river Thames where the British forces try to slow down the advance of the Americans passed by Windsor, and of the Bataille of Châteauguay during which the French Canadians sow obstacles with the Americans, which try without success to take the town of Montreal in order to cut the provisioning of High-Canada. The defense of Canada is worth important long-term advantages to him, in particular as for the creation of a feeling of unity and nationalism within the population of the British North America. An massive immigration of the Great Britain and Ireland towards Canada are felt in 1815, where the immigrants settle in particular on and in the surroundings of Hamilton thus uniting the Loyal supporters made in 1784. In this same year, the town of Drummondville is halfway founded between Three-Rivers and the town of Sherbrooke (populated in 1793 by the Loyal supporters) in order to establish a station of monitoring on the Rivière Saint-François, which gives a direct maritime access of the St. Lawrence river to the United States. A series of agreements will lead then to long periods of peace between Canada and the United States, being stopped only by briefs raids operated by political insurrectionists, the Fenians (American of Irish origin), of 1866 to 1871 against the British authorities. The latter will be in particular supported by the Canadian politician Thomas D' Arcy McGee, but this one will moderate its remarks before the invasion fénienne with the Bataille of Ridgeway on the peninsula of the Niagara in 1866.

With the neighborhoods of the site of the town of Saint-Boniface (annexed later to the town of Winnipeg), which founded in 1818 and by the Métis with the accesses of the river Rouge, Canada is populated attends in 1816 the Bataille of the seven oaks. The latter puts in scene two rival companies of draft of fur, the Compagnie of Hudson Bay and the Compagnie of the North-West, whose intention - which shows a victory - is the takeover of the provisions of fur of the Fort Douglas by the Company of Hudson Bay.

In 1822, a project of legislative union of two Canadas is submitted to the Parliament of London by Lord Henri Bathurst, then Secretary of State for the British colonies, . This provision causes to create a French-speaking minority with the Canadian-Frenchwoman majority of Low-Canada. Representatives low-Canadian, whose Louis-Joseph Papineau, go to London in 1823 in order to show the massive opposition of Low-Canada. The project is finally abandoned in this same year.

The representatives of the patriotic Parti (founded by the French Canadians at the beginning of the XIXe century with the denomination “Left Canadian”) deposit petitions in 1828 with the House of Commons of London, whose main concerns complain about the arbitrary and illegal acts of the general governor George Ramsay at the place of the French-speaking people. This last is dislocated of its functions in this same year.

The fallen through attempts at constitutional reform, the absence of really being able to legislate - the governmental Népotisme, the social difficulties and the feeling of minorisation of the French-speaking people carry out the Patriotes Canadian, directed by Louis-Joseph Papineau and dissatisfied of their position of weakness, to send 92 resolutions to London in 1834 requiring more democratic capacities for the Parliament of Low-Canada. In 1835, the governor Lord Gosford sets up it “on all the sorrows affecting the subjects of His Majesty in Low-Canada”. This commission leads to the 10 resolutions of Russell in 1837, which incarnate the categorical refusal of London and the rejection of the whole of the requests and make it possible even the colonial government to exceed the budgetary authority of the Room of assembly of Low-Canada. The patriotic Party changes strategy following this refusal and carries out several assemblies of citizens, of which assemblies of Saint-Bear, of the St. Lawrence, Saint-Marc and Stanbridge Station, in addition to the Assemblée of the six-counties where the Colonne of freedom is set up. During this last assembly just like in the preceding ones, the citizens support the idea of the Human rights, the constitutional fight, the economic and commercial boycott and approve the paramilitary organization of the young Patriots, the Société of Wire of Freedom. Certain Americans, of which the brothers Robert Nelson and Wolfred Nelson and certain French recruited by the United States, whose Charles Hindelang, lines up as regards Patriot and supports the assembly, which will lead to the civil war of Low-Canada in 1837, commonly called the Rébellion of the Patriots. In 1838, the Declaration of independence of Low-Canada, written by Robert Nelson then gone back to the United States with its partisans, promulgates the separation of the Church and the State, then leads to the creation of the République of Low-Canada. This will of autonomy and this revolution however are violently repressed by the British army and lead to a series of conflicts whose battles of Saint-Denis, the Bataille of Saint-Charles and the Bataille of Saint-Eustace. Moreover, during the Rebellion, Iroquois of the areas of Kahnawake and Kanesatake declare their neutrality vis-a-vis the conflict, but collaborate all the same with the British authorities. Several villages of the Montérégie are set fire to and plundered, and of the Patriots are hung in 1839, of which François-Marie-Thomas Chevalier of Lorimier, on the future site of the Parthenais prison in Montreal. Some will call some with the Génocide of Low-Canada - recalling that of the populations autochtones of 1763 to 1766 - which will last until the policy of linguistic and cultural eradication between in force in 1840 via the Act of Union. Moreover, hundreds of current Canadian-Frenchwomen families are touched by the Déportation several Patriots. The latter are in particular exiled in Australia, colony pénitencière, whereas others must flee in the United States.

The Rébellion of High-Canada carried out against the British empire is as for it moreover short duration and does not have a direct incidence. As in Low-Canada, the purpose of it is to reform the democratic system by introducing the ministerial Responsabilité. It is the fruit of the insurrection of the Écossais carried out by William Lyon Mackenzie and its and which also leads to a declaration of independence, that of the République of Canada. The revolutionists flee Toronto and will establish the new government of the République on the island Navy on the Rivière the Niagara. However, after being forced to leave the island by the Royal Navy , they cross the border where the American authorities capture them and do them captive for violation of the laws of neutrality between the United States and the British empire.

In 1838-1839, Canada attends in more one conflict of border at the time of which opposes the British to the Americans in the acadian area overlapping the North-East of the State of the Maine (Comté of Aroostook), is of Low-Canada (MRC of Témiscouata) and the North-West of the colony of New Brunswick (Comté of Madawaska), whose center is the current city of Edmundston. An agreement enters the United States and the United Kingdom divides the area according to the three borders known today. This area, commonly called, is made up of a population mainly French-speaking of acadian descent, whose inhabitants are known under the name “” contrary to Acadian of the other areas which preserved the same denomination.

Province of Canada (Canada-Plain) (1840 - 1867)

Following the failure of the Rebellions of 1837, the Victoria queen sanctions the creation of a special council to manage Low-Canada and gives in 1839 to John Lambton, Lord Durham, the task studied the political situation of two Canadas. The Report/ratio on the businesses of British North America (Durham report/ratio) translated the principal recommendations of this last. Those are the reunification of the two colonies (what would make it possible to reduce the great debt of the High-Canada by distributing it on all the territory) and the more important presence of the British culture near the French-speaking people, in order to drown them there and to assimilate them, because they are regarded as without culture, history, fatherland and literature. Thus the Acte of Union of 1840 amalgamates two Canadas in only one quasi-federal colony, the Province of Canada - or commonly the Canada-Plain , abrogeant part of the rights granted the French Canadian by the Acte of Quebec of 1774.

Thus, the legislative Assemblée of the province of Canada is henceforth the body which directs the colony theoretically. Its seat will be alternatively Kingston, Montreal, Toronto and Quebec, but will settle definitively with Ottawa in 1866. The Left '' Tory English '' or conservative party (incarnated within the Compact Family and of Castle Clicks), will lose little by little its influence until 1848. This year, one sees appearing the introduction of the first government responsible for Canada following alliance between Sir Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine and Robert Baldwin, both Prime Ministers for the Canada-Is and of the Canada-West respectively.

Moreover, in this same year 1848, the Canadian Institut of Quebec is founded with for mission the promotion of the French-speaking culture in order to thwart the growing influence of the British culture. Authors such as François-Xavier Garneau will write several works which will perpetuate the history of the French Canadians with the passing of years. Since the failure of the Rebellion of the Patriots, the politicians Canadian-French, whose George-Etienne Cartier, tries moreover continuously to negotiate with the British government in order to find their province and their legislative powers.

In addition, as of the end of first half of the XIXe century, the Industrial revolution just like makes its appearance in Canada in the remainder of the British Empire. The rich person English families of Canada will be established in particular in the town of Montreal (capital financial) and will found some of the more current Canadian large companies with English Canadians at the stations of foremen and French Canadians as workmen. During more than one century, the great majority of the French Canadians will live folded up on itself, resigned to its fate in poverty and will be driven back with the rural regions where the Catholic church will play a political role dominating ultramontane in the maintenance of cohesion and the support for the company Canadian-Frenchwoman. Thus, vis-a-vis the growth of British immigration in Canada, the Catholic church in particular tries to counter the effect of minorisation of the French-speaking people by encouraging the birthrate, which is known today as being. This phenomenon will perdurera until the end of the years 1950 at the time of the Quiet revolution and the laicization of the State. During this period, one will attend the detachment of the Church by the baby-boomers . The latter will be raised against what will be perceived as being the abuses the Church which have occurred at the time of the Grande Blackness in Quebec, of 1944 to 1959.

With the advent of the responsible government, one attends with the foundation of many political parties and, by the fact even, the creation of a rudimentary diagram describing the wheels of the current Canadian political scene. Thus, the red Parti is founded with Canada-Is in 1848 by Antoine-Aime Dorion by taking again the ideology of the patriotic Party of Louis-Joseph Papineau (at the origin of the Liberal party of Quebec). Etienne-Paschal Taché will come as for him to balance the policy with the creation of the blue Parti according to the more moderate ideas Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine, which left will become later the Conservative party of Quebec and the National union, for finally dying out at the time of the rise of the movement Québécois souverainist in the years 1960. In the Canada-West, the left liberal-conservative will be founded in 1854 by John Alexander Macdonald after the coalition of (formed during the years 1830 as a defender of the high-Canadian rebellion, to become today the Liberal party of Ontario) of Robert Baldwin and William Lyon Mackenzie, and of the Party Tory (today the Parti progressist-conservative Ontario). After a range of fusions of political parties with the passing of years, this new party will lead to the Conservative party of Canada in 2003 in which the Red Tory will be found and the Blue Tory - respectively partisans of the Progressisme and the socio-economic Conservatisme. George Brown will found as for him the Clear Grits (ancestor of the Liberal party of Canada and regarded as being more progressist), with very the more radical members of the faction reformist of the Party reformist, by preaching the Reference mark by Pop (principle of the Representative democracy where the deputies is elected in proportion to the population), and thus the minorisation of the French Canadians at the legislative assembly of thePlain one. This party will be perceived like privileging policies anti-French-speaking people being given the defended principle of the representation according to the population and the English majority which exists in the whole of thePlain one.

Whereas Canada Uni is at the edge of a civil war with the beginning of the year 1860 and that the American Civil War of the United States makes rage, having been reversed by the opposition parties following its alliance with the red Party due to Sécularisme anticlerical, the Clear Grits of George Brown join in 1864 the parties of John Alexander Macdonald (preserving Liberal party) and of George-Etienne Cartier (Left blue), which form the Macdonald-Cartier coalition. The Clear Grits Irish will make volte-face however and will support the Party reformist of William Lyon Mackenzie. Thus, the Coalition government will be formed and will lead to the creation of the Confederation in 1867 and this, in particular, with an aim of securing by-effects of the American civil war in Canada.

After the United States and the United Kingdom intended themselves in 1846 to retain the 49 {{E}} parallel north like border separating the United States from the West of British North America, the government of Great Britain signed with the United States an agreement of Libre-échange for thePlain one in 1854. The Traité reciprocity canado-American off allowed a renewal in the economy in freefall of the Province Canada . This agreement will take however fine in 1866, and the economy of Canada-Plain will fall down to the drift.

The government of Great Britain created the colony of the Vancouver Island in 1849, and 1858 the colony of the Colombia-British at the time of the Gold rush in the canyon Fraser. As of the end of the Years 1850, the Canadian leaders started a series of explorations towards the West, carried out inter alia by George Dawson and Joseph Burr Tyrrell, with the intention to take the control of the Earth of Rupert as well as artic region. The Territory of the North-West and the Territoire Stikine transfer the day by taking again certain sites of the Ground of Rupert. The Canadian population believed quickly thanks to a high birth rate; the massive immigration of Europe countered the effect of the emigration towards the United States. Indeed, as of the years 1840 and until the Great Depression of 1929, several French Canadians will migrate in the States of New England (north-eastern American) in order to flee English oppression and in the search of financial safety. This massive exodus will be known as being the “Great Hemorrhage”. At the beginning of the XXe century, several of these Franco-Americans will return to Canada and will settle in the provinces of the Canadian west. Moreover, during these years several French-speaking people will be established in the Canada-West and will populate the current French-speaking areas of the north and the east of Ontario, although French colonization was already present at the time of News-France in the areas of the south of current Ontario.

Material change at the end of the period pre-confederation, as the government is now ascribable with the population, the legislative Parliament of the Canada-Is mainly French-speaking, abolishes the Coutume of Paris and introduced the Civil code of Low-Canada in 1866 following the example Code Napoleon in France, in order to govern the civil cases. This new code of law will know a first reform in 1980 for then being reformed completely in 1991 and giving the Civil code of Quebec. Moreover, during this period, the Province of Canada knows one period of massive immigration coming from the south of the the United States following the American Civil War. The American immigrants are established mainly in the south of the Québécois territory, populating thus more the area of the Canton-of-L' Is which was created when the Loyal supporters of Empire-Plain took refuge there after the war of independence of the United States. Then, overlapping the end of the mode of Canada-Plain and the beginning of the Confederation, one witnesses a recrudescence of the development of the area of the Laurentides when the bishop Ignace Le Bourget concedes the parish of Saint-Jerome with François-Xavier-Antoine Labelle, well-known like the cleaned Labelle .

Confederation (1867 - 1982)

In consequence of the Great Coalition at the time of the Conference of Charlottetown and the Conference of Quebec in 1864, as well as Conference of London in 1866, undertake them to off unify the three colonies - thePlain one, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick - thus leading to the creation of the Dominion Canada . The Acte of British North America of 1867 creates this Dominion under the name of Canada, with four distinct provinces: the Ontario, the Quebec, the New Brunswick and the Nova Scotia. The goal of this organization is to drown Quebec, very populeux and concentrating the French-speaking people, in a group of small anglophone provinces with the same capacities, like protecting itself from the expansionist ideas from the United States after the American Civil war. Although the formation of the Confederation starts a certain form of process of independence, the mode of State remains monarchical. However, this monarchy becomes constitutional and preserves a responsible government at parliamentary mode.

Being one of the fathers of the Confederation, George-Etienne Cartier, politician of strong influence in Low-Canada, become the principal precursor of the conservation of the Fait French in the Canadian confederation, as well as protection of the political regime which form federal union. At the time of the conference of London in 1866, the latter was called, by the English delegates, with being replaced by a central legislative union with English majority, which would have removed the principle of the distribution of legislative competences known within the current federal union, and by the fact even, would have destroyed all real legislative powers among French-speaking people being given the minority which would have been thus formed.

Thereafter, Canada undertakes to take the control of the grounds of the plain between the Colombia-British and Ontario while going up until the Territoire of the North-West by the Ground of Rupert. Canada quickly integrates the territories of the west thanks to the expansion of the provinces of Ontario and Quebec, of the colony of the Colombia-British and the large plain. The Territoires of the North-West are created with the integration of the Territoire of the North-West and the Ground of Rupert in 1870.

The colony of the Rouge river is founded and will become later the bilingual province of Manitoba. The people autochtones, including the Mongrel (downward Amerindians and of French and Scot), lived in a political structure which was clean for them. Consequently, when the British army is able to take possession of the grounds, certain tensions degenerate into opened conflicts, even with the war. Thus, a major political crisis is started between the British and the mongrel people of the Plain, this last wishing to preserve its authority and its autonomy on its territory. The provisional government negotiated with the Canadian government, which leads to the creation of the province of the Manitoba and to its entry within the Confédération in July 1870. The Canadian soldiers, of which several were Orangistes, deceived the mongrel population. Several Mongrels left towards the west. Louis Riel, the president of the provisional government, was obliged to exile itself in Montana because of a premium placed by the Ontarian government.

The colony of the Colombia-British - which includes that of the Vancouver Island since 1866 - as well as the colony of the Island-of-Prince-Edouard join respectively the Confédération in 1871 and 1873. Moreover, with an aim of unification and in order to extend the Union by supporting the Canadian authority on the provinces of the Western, the government makes build three transcontinental railroads - more particularly the Peaceful Canadian Railroad - by employing the Chinese immigrants (become Sino-Canadians today) like slaves. However, the construction of the railroad leads to the Scandale of the Pacific in 1873 during which the Prime Minister John Alexander MacDonald is with the catches with charges of Corruption.

The government encourages the European immigrants to develop the Canadian Prairies and, for this purpose, it adopts the Loi of the grounds of the dominion and establishes celebrates it assembled Police of the North-West (today the royal Gendarmerie of Canada). Whereas more and more of immigrants of the United Kingdom go in the plain on train transcontinental and that the population of the area increases, some of the more big cities known today push like mushrooms with the current of the decade 1880, of which Regina, Saskatoon, Calgary, Vancouver and Whitehorse, thus accompanying the towns of Edmonton and respectively founded Victoria in 1795 and 1843 by the Company of Hudson Bay, as well as the towns of Sault-Holy-Marie and Thunder Bay (founded at the XVIIe century respectively by the fathers Jesuits and the runners of French wood). In 1883, the town of Sudbury (the most francized city of Ontario) will be as for it founded following the discovery of nickel and copper mines in the area, whereas seven years before, the town of Thetford Mines was founded after the discovery of asbestos mines in its neighbouring areas. Moreover, at the end of the XIX {{E}} century, areas of the Territoires of the North-West, whose some include these cities, will be made grant a new statute, thus forming the Yukon Territory at the time of the Gold rush in the area of the Klondike in 1897, as well as the provinces of the Alberta and the Saskatchewan in 1905.

Canada has a long story of violence moved by hatred towards the racial or ethnic minorities . In this motivation, the recognized political institutions, local press, leaders and the private individuals Canadian-English will perpetrate a first riot anti-Chinese in 1887 in Granville (Vancouver), whereas a second riot of the same kind takes seat in 1907 and in is directed towards the immigrants originating in Japan. Similar aggressions will occur until in the years 1970, in particular at the time of the second world war where members of the German and Japanese community will be arbitrarily interned in the inspiration of the Antisémitisme Nazi. Moreover, one will speak about the movement Skinhead which will become a threat for multicultural fabric of Canada, in particular at the time of the riot of Toronto in 1992. But it is in June 2006 that the Canadian government will submit official excuses and compensations to the sino-Canadian community for the “tax for entry imposed to the Chinese immigrants” with the Loi for Chinese immigration for 1923.

When the Rébellion of the river Rouge ended, several Mongrels moved towards the west, in order to preserve their independence. They based the colony of Batoche on banks of the Rivière Saskatchewan-south in the north of the site of the current city of Saskatoon. However, with the arrival of the British immigrants who took possession of the grounds of the Meadows in the years 1880 and with the imposition of the cadastral mode English of division of the grounds in cantons (making opposition to the mode seigneurial) by the Canadian government, the mongrel people raised themselves against Canada and carried out a revolt in order to establish an independent State. Louis Riel, income of his exile in 1884, directed this fallen through attempt, which is known today as being the Rébellion of the North-West. During the latter, one attended a series of opened conflicts, of which the Bataille of Duck Lake, the massacre of Frog Lake, the battle of Strong Pitt, the Bataille of Fish Creek, the battle of Cut Knife, the Bataille of Batoche, the battle of Frenchman' S Butte and the Bataille of Loon Lake. The mongrel chief Louis Riel was captured and hung for treason in 1885 by the Canadian authorities.

Although the movement Suffragette for the right to vote of the women appeared with the current of the years 1870, this right is not granted for the first time in 1916 by the provinces of the Canadian west. The following year, the federal government will make in the same way, and the central provinces and of the Atlantic as well as the territories will follow thereafter.

Territorial divisions of the Confederation will change during the years, in particular with the integration of the province of Ground-New-and-Labrador in 1949 and of the creation of the territory of the Nunavut in 1997. However, it should be noted that the provinces of Quebec and Ground-New-and-Labrador are still today in disagreement on the portion of the border of the two provinces in the south of Labrador. Although a judgment of the legal Comité of the private Council of London () sliced in favor of Ground-New-and-Labrador in 1927, Quebec always regards this border as not being final.

Moreover, giving following the trade of the fur in the area, the development of the Abitibi-Témiscamingue will be felt at the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th century with colonization by the draveurs and his development agroforestier, like during the time of the Entre-deux-guerres with a mining development of Noble metals such as the money and gold, and of industrial minerals such as copper and zinc. Thus, one will see the foundation of the big cities of the area such as Amos, Rouyn-Noranda and Valley-with Or. In the same line, the town of Yellowknife, current capital of the Territories of the North-West, founded with the current of the years 1930 at the time of will be discovered gold and diamond mines in the area, whereas the towns of Fermont and Schefferville in Quebec - on the border mid-west of the Labrador - founded at the time of are discovered iron mines in second half of the 20th century. The foundation of these cities will make following the foundation of the town of Chibougamau, in the center of Quebec, whose settlement is also based on the forestry development and mining. In the years 1960-1970, one will witness moreover an interest for the development of the areas of the Baie James and the river Manicouagan in Quebec by the construction of stoppings, being given the hydroelectric strong potential. On the same way as that of the gold rush in the area of Klondike, the areas more in north of the Meadows, in particular those of Alberta and Saskatchewan, will see for their part a growth of their population as of the years 1930 with the discovery and the exploitation of the oil reservoirs in the bituminous Sables of Athabasca. The north of the Colombia-British as for him will be developed thanks to its forest strong potential, whereas the south of the province is it thanks to its favorable climate with the fruit-bearing and market-gardening culture, in particular in the valley of the Okanagan close to the town of Kelowna, which was founded in 1859 by the catholic missionaries Oblats of Marie-Immaculate coming from France. The town of Frobisher Bay which will become Iqaluit in 1987 and the capital of Nunavut, as for it will be populated at the time of the Second world war where it will be used as a basis soldier American, then will know a growth of its population in the years 1950 during the construction of the Ligne DEW - system of radars being used for detection of the Soviet intrusions during the Cold war in order to provide for protection with air sovereignty within the framework with the Commandement with aerospace defense with North America (N.O.R.A.D.). The community of Alert on the northern point of the island of Ellesmere close to the Arctic Ocean, will have the same mission as from 1958, whereas fishing is the principal mode of subsistence of the Scandinavian coastal villages, in particular those of the areas of Labrador, of the North-of-Quebec, Nunavut and the Territories of the North-West such as Inuvik with fishing with crabs in the Mer of Beaufort.

Autonomous Canada

Belonging to the British Empire, Canada is integrated into the second Guerre of Boers in South Africa by the first Prime Minister Canadian-French Wilfrid Laurier, at the end of the XIXe century and into the beginning of the XX {{E}} century. Directed by the politician Henri Bourassa, of the groups of French Canadians opposed to the British supervision dedicate themselves to the defense of their rights as people. They will be opposed in particular to the entry in war of Canada and the creation of Canadian naval forces under British flag. Canada launches out moreover in the First World War in 1914 and sends on the western face (in Belgium, on the Somme and in Picardy), of divisions made up mainly of volunteers in order to fight as a national quota. The human losses are so large that Canadian the Prime Minister for the time, Sir Robert Laird Borden, issues the Conscription in 1917 (see Crise of the conscription (1917)). This decision is extremely unpopular within the Québécois population, thus leading to a loss of popularity in Quebec for the Conservative party and also to the famous strike of Quebec, often last under silence because echoing the revolt of the Chemin of the ladies in France. At the time of large the demonstration of Quebec, the British army shoots at crowd and kills out of many people. Although the members of the Liberal party are deeply divided on the enrôlement obligatory one, they unify and become the dominant party on the Canadian scene political.

In 1919, Canada joined the Société of the Nations of its own boss and, in 1931, the Statut of Westminster confirms that henceforth no law of the British Parlement extends inside the borders from Canada without its assent. To the same moment, the Grande Depression of 1929 assigns the Canadians of all the social classes; the growing popularity of the democratic social Left (PSD) in Alberta and Saskatchewan leads to a welfare state such as initiate by Tommy Douglas or later Jean Lesage in the Années 1960 in Quebec. He becomes thus the ancestor of the Nouveau current Democratic party and preaches populist policies more Socialistes and . After having supported the appeasing with the Germany at the end of the Years 1930, the first liberal minister William Lyon Mackenzie King obtains the approval of the Parlement for the entry in the Second world war in 1939, thus mobilizing the soldiers before the invasion of the Germany in Poland. At the beginning of the war, one had promised in Quebec that the participation in this war would be voluntary. At the time of the declaration of the conscription, Camillien Houde, then mayor of Montreal, is put in prison following its official opposition (see Crise of the conscription (1944)). Another subject of discord, according to the Canadian Constitution, only the provinces have the right of taxation and imposition. However to face the effort of war, the federal government collects all the taxing rights while promising to return them at the end of the war. This promise never is respected, put aside in Quebec which finds half of its right of imposition. No other Canadian province has until now found this right.

The Canadian economy mainly knows a strong effervescence during the war thanks to the enormous production of military material on behalf of Canada, of the Great Britain, the China and the Soviet Union. Canada finishes the war with one of the more large armies of the world. The Canadian economy knows hours of glory and does not cease progressing. At the same time, Canada modernizes its social system which becomes a world reference in several fields, of which health.

In 1949, the Dominion of Newfoundland, independent in the past, joined the Confederation as a tenth province of Canada. With the abolition of the British Empire, all the imperial bonds are broken and Canada obtains in fact its independence, although its constitution remains in London.

Until the centenary of Canada in 1967, an massive immigration of post-war period coming from the various States devastated in Europe changes the curve of the demography of the country. Moreover, throughout the Guerre of Vietnam, of the thousands of American dissidents settles with the four corners of the country. The increase in immigration - compound to the Baby-boom, an economic force equivalent to that of the United States in the years 1960 and reaction to the Quiet revolution in Quebec - supports the emergence of a new type of Canadian Nationalisme. The Années 1960 are also the occasion for the Inhabitants of Quebec to politicize itself because of their not-representation in the strategic and economic stations. It is for this period that the independence movement which leads to the foundation of the Parti Québécois and to its takeover in 1976, takes its rise. At the end of the years 1960, the Commission Laurendeau-Dunton obtains the mandate to make investigation and situation report on bilingualism and the bicultural tradition in Canada. The Loi on the official languages takes action pursuant to it when it is adopted in 1969 by the Parliament. This one proclaims English and French as being the official languages of Canada. Those are with equality in front of the law and any person has the right to receive the services of the federal public administration as well as her companies of State in one or the other language. The Commissariat with the official languages will be the body responsible for the application of the law and the promotion of the two languages.

During the decade 1970 and under the command of the Prime Minister Pierre Elliott Trudeau, one attends an important series of illegal acts and of having for goal to counter the movement souverainist. But it is into 1977 that it is setting-up with the mandate to inquire into the activities of the royal Gendarmerie of Canada. The latter gives following the Mackenzie Commission of 1969, the purpose of which was to found a control of the security service of the GRC. According to the recommendations of the Commission Report MacDonald, the Canadian Service of the information of safety will be made up in 1984 from a law of the Parliament. Thus, the control of the secret services will be all the more increased and this new organization will be completely independent of the GRC.

The referendum on the sovereignty-association of Quebec takes place in spring of the year 1980. The Prime Minister for Canada, Pierre Elliott Trudeau, promises to modify the Constitution of Canada at the time of the countryside chief clerk in the condition which the Inhabitants of Quebec vote in majority against the secession of Quebec.

Federation (since 1982)

At the time of a meeting in November 1981, the Prime Ministers provincial and federal ask for the repatriation of the Constitution, in so far as the procedures of amendment from now on are included there. After a round of negotiations interprovinciales, the Prime Ministers provincial and federal meet in the night from November 4th to 5th 1981 in order to complete the provisions of the new Constitution. The province of Quebec is however excluded from the negotiations. This period will be métaphoriquement known thereafter as being the night of the long knives of Canada. In spite of the not-ratification of the modifications by the province of Quebec, the latter will be recognized by the United Nations like belonging to the federation. The Statute of Westminster of 1931 had subjected the right of constitutional modification to the approval of the Crown and the Parliament of the United Kingdom in order to avoid the unilateral withdrawal of Quebec of the Confederation. However, certain people support that the imposition of the new Constitution in Quebec is illegitimate being given the principle of the sovereignty of the Member States of a confederation and thus, that of the unanimity necessary for the modification of the treaty of the union. Canada repatriates all the same its Constitution of Great Britain on April 17th, 1982 thanks to the Loi of 1982 on Canada, under proclamation of the Queen Elizabeth II. This law of the British Parlement creates an entirely sovereign State, although the two countries divide the same monarch always today. Thus, the Constitution of Canada henceforth includes the law of 1982 on Canada, the constitutional Loi of 1982, the constitutional Loi of 1867, the Statut of Westminster of 1931, the laws of integrations of the provinces and other constitutional laws and decrees put in appendix, the various subsequent amendments as well as the traditions and not written conventions recognized by jurisprudence. The constitutional law of 1982 will introduce the Canadian Charte of the rights and freedoms, the Right of the people autochtones as well as the principle of equalization. The political regime will remain a constitutional monarchy with parliamentary mode according to the provisions of the constitutional law of 1867. As of the coming into effect of the constitutional law of 1982, the form of the State will pass however from a confederation to a federation, thus giving place to a Canadian Fédéralisme. The expressions “Canadian Confederation” and “Dominion of Canada” will however continue to be used in an abusive way by certain people to indicate Canada.

In consequence of the referendum of 1995 on the secession of Quebec, the “law of clarification” is deposited with the House of Commons by the federal government of the Prime Minister Jean Chrétien and is adopted by the Parliament in 2000. This one gives following the “Reference relating to the secession of Quebec” to the Supreme court of Canada in 1998. The purpose of this law is mainly to define the bases of recognition of the sovereignty of a province by Canada additional clause a victory future chief clerk for his independence, in particular by determining if the question would make it possible the population of the province to clearly declare if she wants or not that this one ceases belonging to Canada and becomes an independent State . This law will be however considered to be inadequate by the deputies of the National Assembly of Quebec, all confused political tendencies. Indeed, those unanimously create a counterweight in this same year as a voter the “law on the exercise of the basic rights and the prerogatives of the people of Quebec and the State of Quebec”, which enacts that the Québécois people only determines (...) the methods of the exercise of its right to choose the political regime and the legal status of Quebec according to a chief clerk majority.

The movement Québécois souverainist

See also: Movement souverainist of Quebec

In consequence of the deep social and economic changes as well as popular awakening to the Quebec during the Quiet revolution of the Years 1960, certain Inhabitants of Quebec start to assert larger provincial Autonomie on the political plan, and even the total independence of Quebec. Having been forced at an agrarian company since the Conquest of 1760, the Québécois company starts to urbanize during this period. The quiet revolution is the precursor of the modern State which form Quebec and leads the Inhabitants of Quebec to redefine either as “French Canadians” (expression now become obsolete and pejorative in Quebec), but henceforth as “Québécois”, which leads consequently to the formation of a Patriotisme Québécois rather than Canadian. The modern society will develop in particular thanks to the welfare state and with the development of typically Québécois companies and this, while taking again the strategic stations of the public administration as well federal as provincial. Although Jean Lesage is recognized as being the father of the Québécois Nationalisme, several historical events going up until the time of the News-France, whose Rébellion of the Patriots, show that Québécois nationalism is in fact the fruit of the nationalism Canadian-French. In this spirit, Rene Lévesque founds the Mouvement Sovereignty-Association in 1967 and will support the fusion of the movement the following year with the national Ralliement to lead to the formation of the Parti Québécois. Contrary to this party which privileges the democracy and the way chief clerk to reach independence, the Rassemblement for national independence as for him will be made of a faction independatist which will be later known under the name Front of release of Quebec and which will disappear shortly after the Crisis from October of 1970. Although several politician, whose Rene Lévesque, regarded this short speech as being political interference, the speech of the former president of the French Republic, Charles de Gaulle, in 1967 in Montreal, ignited crowd and gave a knack to the movement souverainist by submitting Quebec to the international community, in particular with its famous sentence: “Lives free Quebec!”.

In the years 1960, the politicians make a success of a feat of ingenuity with the abolition of the Legislative council of Quebec. Contrary to the other Canadian provinces which abolished theirs in the first decades of the Confederation, Quebec successful in 1968 to be detached from this Upper House, symbol of the control of the legislative power given to the French Canadians. This room gave following the Legislative councils of Low-Canada and the plain province of Canada. The Lieutenant-governor of Quebec remains however, still today, the symbol of British monarchy in Quebec. In the legal framework of the constitutional law of 1982, this institution can however be abolished only by one modification of the Constitution by the unanimous agreement of the provincial legislatures and the federal Parliament, although the legitimacy of this law in Quebec is prone to debate.

At the time of the first government formed by the Québécois Party in 1976, the Prime Minister Rene Lévesque makes the promotion of the national currency: “I remember”, which had been engraved on the frontage of the Hôtel of the Parliament of Quebec in 1883 by the architect Eugene-Etienne Taché. During years, this national currency will play a big role for several Inhabitants of Quebec in the development and the development of Québécois patriotism and this, by pointing out the history of the French America. Moreover, still today, certain people do not recognize the legitimacy of the Parliament and the federal government in the businesses Canadian-Frenchwomen. Without counting that Quebec forever signed the constitutional law of 1982. However, although the respect of the culture Canadian-Frenchwoman is of interest for several French-speaking people, the movement souverainist creates a dichotomy in the ideology of the French-speaking people of Quebec and those of the other provinces, although certain groups, whose Acadian ones, have their own institutions and national symbols such as the currency “United we stand, divided we fall”. Although appeared it as of the years 1840 in search of a job security, several Inhabitants of Quebec - english-speaking and French-speaking people - leave Quebec at the time of the takeover of the Québécois party and the coming into effect of the Charte of the French language. Those migrate in particular to the United States like in the provinces of Ontario and the Meadows. This exodus follows the removal of the head office of several Canadian-English large companies leaving inter alia the financial center of the street Saint-Jacob of Montreal for that of Toronto.

Alienation between the two linguistic independent groups on the question of the language and the social and cultural divergences is exacerbated by several events, of which the Crise of the conscription of 1944 to the Second world war, the Crise of October of 1970 during which the martial law is issued by the first federal minister - Pierre Elliot Trudeau - in Quebec, as well as the failure of the two constitutional conferences of the former Prime Minister of Canada - Brian Mulroney, namely the Accord of the lake Meech of 1987 and the Accord of Charlottetown of 1992. The purpose of these last were to lead Quebec to ratify the Constitution. Notwithstanding the sporadic character of these events, the possessive and vindicatory personality of English Canada with regard to Quebec, as well as the phenomenon of the systematic denigration of Quebec, or Quebec bashing , will come as for them to add their grain of salt to this continual frustration.

A first referendum in 1980 concludes that 59,6% of the voters disallow the proposal of sovereignty-association, and a second in 1995 shows that sovereignty is rejected to 50,6% of the voices, although it was supported by 60% of the French-speaking voters. In spite of these defeats, the results of the referendum of 1995 are disputed still today by several souverainists being given the weak margin separating the two camps, and the allegations which the federal government would have violated the electoral laws of Quebec and even its own law immigration citizenship via Option Canada. These events degenerated with the Scandale of the mixed liability companies of 1996 to 2003, during which federal civils servant were implied in misuses of public money in order to promote Canada within the Québécois population. In consequence of the report/ratio of the auditor general, the Commission Gomery is setting-up in 2004 with the mandate to make the light on the intrigues of the federal government and the collaborator close relations of the cabinet on the matter. Whereas certain people were discharged and others declared guilty, other lawsuits in front of courts are to be come in 2008, in particular those of the advertizing agencies.

In addition, the movement Québécois souverainist defends his position continuously affirming that the culture Canadian-Frenchwoman is not considered with its right value in Canadian policy being given to a majority definitely larger English Canadians, and being given the historical events. With an aim of making common front and of defending the interests of Quebec on the subjects falling under federal legislative competence and this, while working in.liaison.with its provincial counterpart - the Québécois Bloc is founded in 1991 by the former Prime Minister for Quebec Lucien Bouchard. This new party souverainist makes his entry with the House of Commons in 1993 as an official opposition, and since then, this last always collected more majority of the seats allocated in Quebec. Mainly, it is a party which says Social-démocrate and which preaches the right to the Autodétermination people as declared by the US president Woodrow Wilson, after the First World War, in the respect of the Décolonisation and which is recognized in the international law of the United Nations. Moreover, the discord between English and Québécois Canadians involves the province of Quebec not to practically delegate any of its legislative competences at organizations of collaboration interprovinciale, thus tending to create a company completely distinct and thus dissociating themselves from the majority from the interprovinciaux and federal agreements which could compromise the right of Quebec to put forward the culture and know-how Canadian-French within political groups where the decisions are made in the majority of the voices.

With an aim of promotion of the businesses Canadian-Frenchwomen, Quebec knew to take advantage of its particular geopolitical position where it is the only state mainly of French language in North America, contrary to the French-speaking people of the other provinces and the United States which is often drowned and compared to the mass of English expression and for which a territory circumscribing them is often almost indefinable. In the same way that an independent country, it is not rare to see Québécois politicians going to the defense of the French-speaking minorities of the other provinces and territories. The government of Quebec engages even in agreements off-shore, even international, by giving itself for mission the promotion and the exchange growth between people of French language. Thus, one can assist, for example, with agreements concluded with the National company from Acadie, with the governments of the provinces in the west of Quebec as regards French-speaking businesses, and even with the French-speaking communities of the United States such as those of the states of Louisiana and Maine.

In spring 2006, the new conservative government of Canada signed an agreement with the government of Quebec so that the province unites the rows of UNESCO as an associated member. By doing this, the asymmetrical federalism is from now on present in federal policy. Moreover, on November 27th, 2006, the House of Commons of Canada voted, with a crushing majority, in favor of a motion which recognizes that “the Québécois form a Nation within linked Canada”, a step especially symbolic system but which constitutes a great step ahead for the consolidation of the feeling of the particular status of the French-speaking province. In English Canada, criticisms fused, much fearing that one does not give new weapons to the Québécois freedom fighters.

Canadian specificity

Since the end of the 19th century, the Amerindians are parked and left with themselves by the federal government in reserves where they enjoy a certain form of autonomy, the latter being always under the control of the federal capacity. These reserves do not offer practically any public service and are impressed of a marginalisation of the people autochtones. Consequently of this situation and several treaties often signed under the influence of the constraint of the British army, various clashes occur still today as for the territorial claims and with the respect of the place of the people autochtones within Canada. These governmental arguments with the people autochtones degenerate sometimes into opened conflicts, in particular at the time of the Crise of Oka in 1990, of in 1995, more recently of the Crise of Kanesatake of 2004 to 2005 and of in 2006. The recognition of the rights ancestral (or resulting from treaties) as for the territorial claims was confirmed in the constitutional Loi of 1982. Moreover, since the years 1990, Canada attends an important crisis of the smuggling of the products of the tobacco, in addition to one important traffic of firearms and narcotics forwarding in particular by the reserve of Akwesasne, which overlaps the canado-American border. Whereas these subjects prove to be very sensitive for the politicians, the governments were often shown of Laxisme in the media and the population.

Economic integration with the the United States is reinforced after 1940. The Accord of North-American free trade (ALENA) of 1994 is one moment culminating in the development of an economic integration between the two countries. However, the Conflit of the sawlog remains an policy issue and commercial since the end of the Années 1980. Moreover, the Canadian economy is in continuous growth thanks to the sectors of the real estate and the mining and natural resources like to the crude oil reserves in bituminous sands of Athabasca, although it was assigned to the fall by the Asian Economic crisis of 1997-1998, by the terrorist attacks of 2001 in the United States and by the loss in value of the technological titles in 2002. Canada was the country host of the Sommet of Americas in 2001, which was held in the town of Quebec, in order to provide for the provisions of possible a Free exchange zone of Americas (ZLEA).

In addition, since the Years 1980, the Canadians are concerned with their cultural autonomy since the American companies, television and films are omnipresent. However, making contrast with the remainder of North America, certain provinces of Canada are aligned towards a universal system of health care. Moreover, the Canadian Charter of the rights and freedoms constrained courts to the conservation of the Multiculturalisme in their judgments.

Canada takes part in the war of the Gulf of 1990-1991 like with the missions of peace of the United Nations in Ex-Yugoslavia and with the Rwanda in the years 1990. Since 2001, Canada takes an active part in the war of Afghanistan within the Western coalition formed following the terrorist attacks of September 11th, 2001 perpetrated by an Islamic faction talibane in the United States. So Canada enters officially the Guerre against terrorism as combined of the United States, but will restrict itself in the military campaign conducted in Afghanistan.

Since the ratification of the Protocole of Kyoto by Canada in 2002 in the respect of the Convention-tallies of the United Nations on the climate changes, of the opponents, such as the current government of Canada, try to withdraw the country of the agreement, considering the too idealistic and unattainable objectives. Contrary, the current government tries to align itself with the Economic cooperation for the Asia-Pacific (APEC) thus giving precedence to the Asia-Pacific Partnership concluded by the members from the Association from the nations from the Southeast Asia (ASEAN).

In another order of ideas, a popular phenomenon invites several Canadians with their migration in the States of the south of the United States such as Arizona and Florida, in the countries of the Caribbean and Oceania as on the Vancouver Island where the winters are generally softer. This phenomenon extends to any category of age without restriction although it is present in particular near the reprocessed people. These people whom one names the spend there the winter, generally six months, and return to Canada in summer in order to preserve their legal statute of residence. The Canadian presence being all the more noticed with the Inhabitants of Quebec in Florida that newspapers of Quebec are delivered each morning in certain “Québécois” areas of the south of Florida.

Parliament and government

See also: Political of Canada, Canadian Monarchy, General governor of Canada

Mode of State

Canada is a Constitutional monarchy which recognizes Its Majesty the queen Elisabeth II like Reine of Canada since her crowning the February 6th 1952. In his capacity as representing of the Queen, Head of the State, His Excellence the very honourable Michaëlle Jean, Governor general since September 2005 and for this reason Ordering as a chief of the Canadian Forces, assumes the royal prerogatives when the Queen is not in Canada. The general governor is named by the Queen on council of the Prime Minister.

Moreover, Canada is a parliamentary Régime federal with a democratic tradition inherited the English democracy of the 16th century. The legislative power is consisted of the Parliament, which includes/understands the General governor of Canada, the Sénat and the House of Commons. The representation of the legislative power is done by the Colline of the Parliament, where all the parliamentary buildings are located. The executive power as for him is consisted of the private Conseil whose advisers are named by the general governor in council, and of which advisers are sworn in to form the ministerial cabinet, directed by the Prime Minister.

Although the General governor preserves certain royal prerogatives, its duties and obligations are defined by the Constitution of Canada, which consists of a series of tangled up constitutional laws, those being made up of written texts and not-written traditions and conventions. The Constitution includes the Canadian Charte of the rights and freedoms guaranteeing to the Canadians the rights and freedoms which are stated there, and which can be enfreints by no level of government in Canada. “They can be restricted only by one legal provision, within limits which are reasonable and whose justification can be shown within the framework of an free society and democratic” (Extracted the first article of the Charter). Moreover, a “clause notwithstanding” grants the federal Parliament like with the provincial legislatures the capacity to legislate in any time, and in the measurement agreed by the legislators, by exceeding temporarily certain provisions of the Charter - in the legal fundamental freedoms, guarantees or the rights to the equality - for one five years renewable period.

The station of Prime Minister, chief of the government of Canada, is allocated de facto to the chief of the political party of which the representation with the House of Commons is largest, which can lead to situations where the party of the government can be majority like minority. The Prime Minister chooses then the members of the the Council of Ministers. The ministerial nominations are carried out by the general governor in council on the recommendations of the Prime Minister, these respected last being usually de facto although they can of swears to be rejected. The members of the Cabinet generally come from the political party of the Prime Minister, and extremely mainly of the deputies of the House of Commons, although some can also come from the Senate, or even rare case, to belong to no Room of the Parliament. Although there is no text written for this purpose, and as the tradition dictates to the General governor to name at the post of Prime Minister the chief of the political majority elected with the House of Commons, and at the posts of private advisers and ministers people whose it approves the nomination, certain lawyers support that nowadays, this provision links the General governor constitutionally.

Assermentations, elections and nominations

Before taking up duty, the Prime Minister of Canada as all the members of his ministerial cabinet are sworn in by the general governor in council initially as advisers deprived within the private Conseil of the Queen for Canada, and then as members of the Cabinet. The Prime Minister exerts many powers, in particular as for the nomination of