Byzantine army

The Byzantine armed was the principal military body of the Byzantine armed forces, serving side by side with the Byzantine Marine. A direct descendant of the legions and Roman Navy of old the Roman Empire, the Byzantine army maintained a level similar of discipline, prowess strategic and organization. For a great part of its history, the Byzantine army was most powerful and the most powerful military force of all Europe. The Byzantine Tactique soldier started to evolve/move in an autonomous way after the fall of the Roman Empire of occident and the disappearance of the Roman legions.

Foreign soldiers and mercenaries

During its: 1123 years of existence, since the foundation of Constantinople like capital of the empire the May 11th 330, until the catch of the city by the Othoman the May 29th 1453, the Byzantine army recruited troops of various nationalities and groups Ethnique S. Souvent, these troops supplemented or assisted the regular forces of the empire; sometimes, they formed even the greatest part of the Byzantine army. But for the majority of the long story of the Byzantine army, the foreign and military soldiers reflected the prosperity and the power of the Byzantine Empire; for the emperor which was able to gather armies of all the corners of the known world, it was indeed a formidable thing.

The foreign troops during the late period of the Roman empire were known under the name of Foederati (“allies” or the “federate ones”), and continued to be known as such to the surroundings of the 9th century (although the title which they held was hellénisé in Phoideratoi (gr. Φοιδεράτοι). From this moment, the foreign troops (mainly Mercenary S) known like Hetaireiai (gr. Εταιρείαι, “Companions”) and were recruited most frequently in the imperial guard. This force was in its turn divided into Large Companions (Μεγάλη Εταιρεία), Average Compagnons (Μέση Εταιρεία), and Minor Companions (Μικρά Εταιρεία), ordered by their respective Hétaïréïarches . Those could be divided on a religious basis separating the Christian subjects, the Christian foreigners, and not-Christians respectively.

Moreover, during the period comnénienne, the units mercenaries simply will be divided by the ethnos group and will be named according to their nataux countries: Inglinoi (English), Phragkoi (Francs), Skythikoi (Scythians), Latinikoi (Latin), etc… Even the Ethiopian were used during the reign as Theophilus. These units mercenaries, particularly the Skythikoi , were also often used like forces police with Constantinople.

Most famous of all the Byzantine regiments was legendary the Garde varangienne. This unit finds its roots in: 6000 Rus' sent to the emperor Basile II by Vladimir of Kiev in 988. Terrible skill of these Scandinavian barbarians managers of axes, and their intense honesty (bought with much money) established them like a crack corps, which soon went up to become the personal guard of the emperor. One sees it in the title even of their commander, the akolouthos (Ακόλουθος, " Acolyte" of the emperor). First of all Varanges were especially of origin Russian, but thereafter, of many Anglo-Saxon Scandinavians and (after the conquest Norman of England) entered the guard. The guard of Varanges was distinguished with the Bataille from Beroia in 1122, and was present at the time of the Bataille of Sirmium in 1167, during which the Byzantine army crushed the forces of the Royaume of Hungary. It is supposed that the guard of Varanges was congédiée after the Sac of Constantinople by the forces of the Fourth crusade in 1204; they were the last unit to have defended successfully part of the city against the attack of the crusaders.

Other types of troops

Cataphractaires

The Byzantines maintained the tradition of a cavalry heavily armed and armoured during all the Moyen-âge. The term of cataphracte (of the Greek κατάφρακτος, kataphraktos ) was that of which were useful the Greek and the people of Latin Langue to indicate to them heavy Cavalerie. Historically, the Cataphractaire was a rider heavily armed and armoured which launched the attacks since oldest Antiquité until the Early middle ages. At the origin, the term of cataphracte returned to a type of armor which covered the totality of the body of the rider and that of its horse. Thereafter, the term was used to indicate the whole of the troop. The cataphractaires at the same time bold and was disciplined. Men as horses were armoured; the riders carried each one a lance, an arc and a mass. These troops moved more slowly than the light cavalry, but their action on the battle fields, in particular under the emperor Nicéphore Ier, was devastator.

Cavalry

The Byzantine cavalry is the heiress of the disciplined and armoured Roman legions. Usually armed with arcs, lances and swords, the riders were ideally adapted for the engagements in the plains of the Anatolia and the North of the Syria, which, as from the VII century, constituted the essential ground of the fights against the forces Musulmanes. Although less heavily armed than than the Western Knights, they were however very effective at the same time against the Arab and the Turks in the east, and against the Hungarian and the Petchenègues in the West.

The infantry

The military tradition of the Byzantine empire finds its origin during the time of bottom empire, and its armies always included/understood professional infantrymen. Although having varied in relative importance during the history of the Byzantine army, the heavy infantry was component important army, in particular under Basile II. These troops carried at the origin of the coats of mail, broad shields, and were armed with swords and javelins. Under the warlike emperors most qualified, such Basile II, they appeared among the most effective infantries of the world.

Pronoiaires

The troops pronoiaires appeared in XIIIe century, in particular during the reign of the emperor Manuel Ier Comnène (1143-1180). It acted soldiers paid out of grounds instead of receiving a silver pay, but they did not operate within the old system of the Thèmes of the period mésobyzantine. The pronoiai consisted primarily of a right to tax the citizens who lived inside the conceded ground (the parèques ones). The pronoiaires (those with which had been conceded this pronoia ) then became to some extent collectors taxes, which were authorized to keep part of the incomes that they took. These men were consequently often compared to the Western knights: partly soldiers, partly of the local leaders. It is important nevertheless to note that the emperor remained the legal owner of the grounds of the pronoiaires. Riders for the majority, the pronoiaires were equipped with bard and lance, coats of mail for their horses. Handbook re-equipped its heavy cavalry with the Western way during its reign. It is extremely probable that many of these troops were pronoiaires. These troops became frequent after 1204, with the service of the Empire of Nicée, in the West of the minor Asia.

Armies of the time protobyzantine

Being given that the Byzantine Empire (in Greek Βυζαντινή Αυτοκρατορία, Βυζαντινή Αυτοκρατορία or more exactly Βασιλεία Ρωμαίων ) was the continuation of the Roman Empire, the Byzantine army was inherited old the Roman Armée. The provinces were before under civil jurisdiction, with governors named by the Roman Sénat or the Roman Emperor itself; the army consisted of about thirty legions based along the uninhabited borders of the empire. The old Roman system lasted until the beginning of the VIIe century.

Reforms of the army under Dioclétien and Constantin

Roman empire of the East creation date of the Tétrarchie (kind of quadrumvirat ) by the emperor Dioclétien in 293. Its project for the succession does not survive its death, but its reorganization of the army remained during centuries. Rather than to maintain legions traditionally strong in infantry, Dioclétien reformed it by dividing it between limitanei (on the borders) and comitatenses (on the battle fields). There was an expansion of the importance of the Chevalerie, although the Infanterie remains the essential component of the Roman armies, contrary to the general idea. Thus, in 478, an army of limitanei of the East was constituted of 8.000 riders and 30.000 infantrymen and one can evaluate the army of which into 357 the emperor Julien laid out the Apostate in Strasbourg, with 10.000 infantrymen and 3.000 riders. But the importance of the cavalry increased in the officers, although their number does not increase, and under Justinien, even their number increased. The introduction of the saddle and the clamp to the Early middle ages, although one knows neither the place nor the date of these inventions, undoubtedly took part in this increase, just as the increasingly wide breeding of enough solid horses to support a man in armor, on the Iranian Plateau.

The troops of frontier guards, or limitanei were charged to defend the Limes, line of fortifications along the borders of the empire. The troops of combat, the comitatenses , on the other hand, remained inside the empire and were to be able to move quickly where one needed them, for operations either defensives or offensives, but were also used for the need for army to overcome the usurpers. The troops of combat were well maintained, and had precedence of the limitanei both for the pay the supply.

The cavalry represented approximately a third of the troops, but because it was made of smaller troops, it actually represented only one quarter of manpower of the Roman armies. The heavy cavalry represented half of this cavalry, and bore various names: the scutarii (literally carriers of shields), the promoti or the stablesiani , to name only some of them. These heavy riders were usually armed with a javelin or a lance, as well as sword, and carried a coat of mail. Some had arcs, but were judicious to protect the load and not to fight by them same. Among these armies of combat, 15% were Cataphractaire S or Clibanari, cavalry heavily armed, which used tactics of shock. Also appeared of the assembled archers ( Equites sagitarii ), and various types of light cavalry. The light cavalry was numerous among the limitanei , and constituted very useful troops for the patrols. The infantry of the comitatenses was divided into regiments of approximately 1.200 men, the legions. It was always about the traditional heavy infantry, of which the soldiers carried each one a javelin, a sword, an armor and a helmet. But from now on, each regiment was accompanied by a detachment of archers and some riflemen. If need be, the infantrymen could give up their armor to fight in a more flexible way, as did it Modarès (if one believes Zosime of it) during the war against Goths of years 370. The legions were directed by a powerful orator, and went per pair (just as the troops of cavalry), under the authority of a count. These brigades of two legions were undoubtedly only tactical and strategic units, because one kept no trace of any staff of brigade.

However, one has little information on the limitanei . The traditional legions, the troop S and the wings of the cavalry ( alae ) survived these reforms, and of new units were create in the cavalry, the auxiliary Troupes ( auxilia ) and the Vexillation S. It is possible that the infantry of the frontier guards was equipped more slightly than that with the troops of combat, but there still, one kept no proof of it. The limitanei was less better paid than the comitatenses , and was recruited locally, contrary to the comitatenses . Consequently, their effectiveness was less. They were nevertheless in first line, and counted more incursions and raids. One can thus think that their experiment of the combat was generally larger (except when the comitatenses left for long campaigns), although this experiment did not extend to the pitched battles or the seats.

The units of the Scholes (in Latin Scholae protectores domestici ) and the obsequium , imperial escort, constituted the personal guard of the emperor, who was created to replace the Praetorian Garde dissolved by Constantin Ier. With the IVe and Ve century S, the legions were not any more those of the Republic or the High-Empire, and they were primarily, even exclusively made up of riders, and tended to have a manpower quite lower than that of the legion augustinienne, which comprised 5.000 men on average.

The army under Justinien and its successors

Armies at the time mésobyzantine

Topics

principal Article: Topic

Usually allotted to Heraclius, but actually founded on the initiative of its Constant successor, II, on the model of the Exarchat S of Italy and Africa, the topics (in Greek θέματα) were the administrative units of the empire. They were directed by a general, the Stratège (in Greek στρατηγός), which cumulated at the same time the civil capacity and the military capacity. The origin of the term is obscure. It could come from Turkish toumen , who indicated a division of 10.000 men, and which would have entered the empire via the Khazars.

The first five topics all were located in minor Asia, and had as a role to face the Arab Djihad, which had already caused the loss of the provinces Syrian and Egyptian. They were the topics:

of Arméniaques (Αρμενιακόν), made up around the army of Arménie by the emperor Justinien II, and located at the East of the Anatolia, since the Cappadoce until the Black Sea and Euphrate;
of Anatoliques (Ανατολικόν), made up around the army of the East, and including/understanding the Byzantine possessions of the center and the South-east of minor Asia;
of Opsikion (Οψίκιον), made up around the Obsequium , troop armed in charge of protection with the emperor, and including/understanding the Bithynie and the Paphlagonie;
of Thracésiens (Θρακήσιον), made up around the army of Thrace, and including/understanding the South-west of minor Asia around Ionie;
of Caravisiens (Καραβησιάνων), the " topic of the navires" in Pamphylie and with Rhodos, which had the responsibility of push back the attacks of the Arab fleets.

In each topic, the men chosen as soldiers saw themselves offering grounds to nourish their family, and to be equipped, the pronoiai (πρόνοια). The population of the first four topics was directed towards the army; thus, the topic of Caravisiens recruited the men for the Byzantine fleet, although naval construction was subsidized (in way intermittante) by various offices of the imperial Treasury. This model of organization in topics was quickly extended to all the empire, the areas of the West included/understood.

Following aristocratic revolts that the big size of these districts came to reinforce, Leon III Isaurien, Theophilus, and Leon VI Wise the took measures to weaken the topics by dividing them into smaller topics, and distributing the control of the armies in each topics between tourmes . In the same way, instead of extending the existing topics on the grounds which it conquered, the emperors of the Dynastie reappearing Macedonian often preferred to create new topics. At the time of the drafting of the De Thematibus (Xe century), Constantin VII Porphyrogénète draws up a list of thirty-eight topics.

Sicily was definitively abandoned to the Arabs at the beginning of the reign of Constantin VIII, into 905, and Cyprus was a Condominium jointly managed with the Moslem Califat until its reconquest by Nicéphore II Phocas in 965. Constantinople, as for it, was under the domination of a éparque (formerly called prefect of the city, in Latin, praefactus urbis ) and was protected by many tagmata and police force.

The tourmarques ones, placed under the direction of the chiefs of topic, the strategists, had the load from two to three armed divisions, which also corresponded to territorial subdivisions called the tourmes. Under their command were the drongaires, themselves with the head of territories called drongoi , of which each one made up of a thousand of soldiers. On the battle fields, these units were divided into bands, or bandaged (singular: bandon ) of 300 men approximately, although sometimes reduced to just a little more than 50 men. There still, the responsibility of subject the possible revolts fell on these subdivisions.

The following table illustrates the structure set of themes such as one could see it in the topic of Thracésiens between 902 and 936.

Note: these terms are direct translations in French.

The imperial tagmata

principal Article: Tagma

The tagmata (in Greek τάγματα, " bataillon") was the standing army of the empire, usually based in Constantinople or in the neighborhoods, even if in last times of the detachments were sent in the provinces. What there remained armies of Dioclétien became the first tagmata, which were converted into army of topic under the Héraclides. About at the same time, some tagmata was formed which constituted kinds of social clubs for the large noble ones of the capital. Thus, Justinien itself would have had fun by integrating one of these units, the scholes, in false exercises of armed deployment, causing by there panic in the highest class of the soldiers aristocrats, who did not have any desire to give up the safety of Constantinople for the discomfort and the danger of an imminent military campaign.

After the first revolts of the armies sets of themes, the emperors remembered the utility to have an army of honest countryside, and the tagmata were placed under the direction of a separated administration, their equipment and their drive were improved, and they from now on were used until the end of the empire.

The four tagmata most prestigious were, in the order:

Scholes (in Σχολαί Greek, " écoles"), downward direct of the imperial guards Constantin;
Excubites (in Εξκούβιτοι Greek, " vigiles"), establish by Leon I;
the Arithmoi (in Αριθμός Greek, " nombres") or Vigla (in Greek Βίγλα, the " veille"), benches undoubtedly between the end of Ve century and the beginning of the Life century; and
Hicanates (in Ικανάτοι Greek, " Capables"), establish by the emperor Nicéphore I.

All these battalions were units of cavalry, including/understanding each one between 1.000 and 6.000 men. 4.000 men seems to have been the average figure. The Noumeroi (in Νούμεροι Greek, " Boys of the bains" called thus for the situation of their base in the city), Optimates (in Οπτιμάτοι Greek, " meilleurs"), and the tagma your Teikhon (in Τειχών Greek, " murs") were tagmata of infantry. The Vigla and the Noumeroi helped with the police force of Constantinople; the tagma of the walls, as its name indicates it, defended the walls of Théodose and was more generally responsible for the defense of the capital.

In addition to these units more or less stable, some tagmata transitory was formed as units devoted to the emperors. Michel II created the tessarakontarioi , special unit of navy, and Jean Ier Tzimiskès founded the Athanatoi (in Greek Αθάνατοι, the " Immortels") according to the old Persian unit.

The tagmatic units were directed by a servant, who had as a lieutenant the topotérétès , except for the Vigla , ordered by a drongaire. The bandaged which formed these units were directed by a count ( komes in Greek). The servant of Scholes, ordering regiment of Scholes, became little by little increasingly important, until becoming the most important officer in Xer century.

The army of Comnène

Setting-up and success

With the advent of the Comnène dynasty, in 1081, the Byzantine empire had been tiny room to its weaker extension since the beginning of its history. Encircled by people hostile and ruined financially by a long period of civil war, the empire seemed intended for a quite dark future. But, thanks to a bold and determined policy, and at years of military campaigns, Alexis, Jean and Manuel Comnène managed to restore the capacity of the empire by setting up a new army on new bases. This armed force at the same time professional and was disciplined. It consisted of powerful units such as the guards of Varanges and of Immortal (unit of cavalry heavy), stationed with Constantinople, and other light units of the provinces. These last included the cavalry of the cataphractaires of Macedonia, Thessalie and Thrace, and other regional forces of the Asian coasts of the Black Sea.

Under Jean II, a unit Macedonian was maintained, and the new troops of Byzantine nation from now on were recruited in the provinces. Minor Asia starting to thrive under the reigns of Jean II and Manual Ier, one recruited more soldiers in the Asian provinces of Néokastra, Paphlagonie and Séleucie (in South-east). Soldiers were also recruited among the overcome people, such Petchénègues (riders archers), or the Serb ones, which were used as colonists stationed with Nicomédie. The local troops were organized in units regular and based at the same time in the Asian and European provinces. The armies comnèniennes were also often reinforced by quotas from Antioche, Serbia and Hungary, although they were formed to two thirds of Byzantine troops, against only one third of foreign troops. The units of archers, infantry and cavalry were associated to combine the use of their various weapons.

This army comnènienne very effective, was well involved and equipped well. It was a force able to fight in Egypt, in Hungary, in Italy and Palestine. However, as it was the case of many aspects of the Byzantine State under Comnène, the greatest weakness of the army was that its organization rested on a chief, who was to be rather powerful and qualified to be able to direct and conclude the operations. During the reigns of Alexis Ier, Jean II and Manual Ier, between 1081 and approximately 1180, the army comnènienne guarantees to the empire one period of safety which made it possible Byzantine civilization to open out. But at the end of XIIe century, the qualified command on which the effectiveness of the army of Comnène was based, disappeared mainly. The consequence of this crisis of staff was to appear disastrous for the Byzantine empire.

Negligence under the Angel

In 1185, the emperor Andronic Ier Comnène died. With him the dynasty Comnène disappeared, which had provided to the empire a series of emperors to great military qualities during nearly one century. It was replaced by the family of the Angel, considered the most inefficient dynasty having reigned on the Byzantine empire.

The Byzantine army is at this time a very centralized organization. It rested on the system according to which the emperor gathered his troops and personally led them on the battle field where with the attack of the enemy fortresses. The generals were narrowly controlled and any instruction and reward came from Constantinople.

However, the inaction and the inaptitude of the Angels led quickly to a decline of the Byzantine military power at the same time on ground and sea. Surrounded by a crowd of slaves, mistresses and courtiers, they made it possible unworthy favorites to control the empire, whereas they same absorbed the money extorted from the provinces in expensive constructions and expensive gifts with the churches of the metropolis. They scattered so much the richnesses which the treasure was vacuum, and their permissiveness with regard to the officers of the army practically left the Empire without defense. Together, they consumed the financial ruin of the State.

The enemies of the empire did not waste time to benefit from this new situation. In the East, Turkish violated the borders of the empire, gradually eroding the control which Byzance exerted on minor Asia. In same time in the West, the Serb ones and Hungarian broke definitively with the empire, whereas in Bulgaria, the tax pressure of the Angels caused a valaquo-Bulgarian rebellion in 1185. This revolt led to the establishment of the Second Bulgarian empire on vital territories for the safety of the empire in Balkans. Kaloyan of Bulgaria annexed several important cities, whereas the Angels consumed the Treasury in palate and gardens, and tried to solve the crisis by diplomatic means. The authority of Byzance left there severely reduced, and the absence of being able in the center of the empire encouraged its dislocation, whereas the provinces took the practice to turn to powerful buildings to ensure their protection. This all the more reduced the essential resources to the empire and its army, as broad areas left the authority of the central capacity.

Collapse of the Byzantine military system analyzes

Structural weaknesses

It was in these circumstances that the disintegration of the military system set of themes, which was the base of the remarkable success of the empire of the eighth at the eleventh century, proved to be a true catastrophe for the Byzantine state.

The first advantage of the system set of themes had been its numerical force. It is thought that the Byzantine army of Handbook Comnène (R. 1143-1180) counted in its rows approximately 40.000 men. Nevertheless, it is obvious that the armies set of themes of the preceding sièces ensured the empire with a higher numerical force. The army of the topic of Thrakesion to it only provided 9.600 men during time 901-936, for example. Moreover, the armies sets of themes were placed in the provinces, and their higher independence compared to the central command meant than they could treat with threats quickly on a local level. That, combined with their greater number, enabled them to provide the empire with a better defense.

The other favors key system set of themes was that it offered to the Byzantine empire a good value of the money. It provides the resources of this great number of men mobilized at a cheap rate. The suspension of the system meant that the armies became more expensive with long, which reduced the number of troops that the emperors could allow to employ. Considerable richness and diplomatic skill of the emperors comnenes, their constant attention with the military questions, and their frequent and energy countryside, largely weighed in the balance. But the chance for the empire to have talented comnenes for a qualified command was not a long-term solution to a structural problem in the Byzantine state itself. After the death of Handbook Ier Comnène in 1180, the Angel did not carry the same care to the military situation that did it Comnène, and the result was such as these structural weaknesses started to appear themselves in the military decline. As from 1185, the Byzantine emperors found increasingly difficult to gather and pay sufficient military forces, whereas their incompetence showed to the limits of the sytème military entire Byzantine, dependant which it was of a qualified personal direction of the emperor. The top of the military disintegration of the empire under the Angel was reached the April 13rd 1204, when the armies of the Fourth crusade plundered Constantinople and dismounted the Byzantine empire. The old Byzantine empire was at its end.

Conclusion

Therefore, the problem was not so related to the fact that the army comnene was less effective with the combat (the success rate of the army set of themes was as varied as that of the counterpart comnene); the problem arises rather thus; because it was a smaller and centralized force, the army of the douxième century needed a higher degree of qualified direction of the emperor in order to be effective. Though formidable under an energetic leader, the army comnene as well did not function with the control of inefficient or indifferent emperors. The greatest independence and flexibility of the army set of themes provided the old empire with a structural advantage which, now, was lost.

For all the reasons quoted above, it is possible to affirm that the suspension of the system set of themes was a great loss for the Byzantine empire. Though it took centuries to realize it completely, one of the principal institutional forces of the Byzantine empire was now disappeared. It was thus not the army which it was necessary to blame for the decline of the empire, but the system which supported all that. Without the strong subjacent institutions which could perdurer beyond the reign of each emperor, the state was extremely vulnerable in times of crisis. Byzance came to too much making confidence with the only emperors, and its survival was not certain any more.

Armies of the kingdom-in-exile and the Paleologists

After the year 1204, the emperors of Nicée kept certain aspects of the system established by Comnènes. However, in spite of the restoration of the Byzantine empire in 1261, the Byzantines never again had the same levels of prosperity, territory and labor of which could lay out the emperors comnenes and their predecessors. Consequently, the military gente was constantly with court of funds. Still worse was to be come. Particularly after the death of Michel VIII Paleologist in 1282, when not very reliable mercenaries as those of large the Catalan Compagnie came to form a proportion of the remaining forces ever reached until there.

With the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, the Byzantine army rose with approximately 7000 men, of which 2000 were foreign mercenaries. The chances were almost non-existent against the 85.000 Othoman troops which sat the city. The Byzantines succeeded during a time to retain the third attack of the Janissaire S of the elite of the Sultan, but a general génoéen in charge of defense, Giovanni Giustiniani, was seriously wounded during the attack, and its evacuation, along the ramparts, caused a panic in the rows of the defenders. Certain historians suggest that the Kerkoporta door, of the section of Blachernae, was dévérouillée, and that the Othomans ended up discovering this error. The Othomans ruèrent themselves there. The emperor Constantin XII guided itself the last defense of the city, and throwing side his badges royal, it plunged head the first on the Othomans who charged, and perishes during the battaile which followed, on the street, with its soldiers. The fall of the capital meant the end of the Byzantine empire. The Byzantine army, last descending from the Roman Legion, did not exist any more.

Byzantine military philosophy

In spite of the importance which the Byzantine empire attached to its position of guard of true and orthodoxe Christendom against the Moslems and similar Catholiques, it is worth the sorrow to note that the empire forever developed or included/understood the concept of " Holy war ". These concepts, close to the Jihad and the Crusade, seemed to him to be coarse perversions of the crowned texts or simple excuses for plundering and the destruction. The emperors, generals and similar military theorists found that the war was a failure in the way of governing and political relations, with being preferably avoided. It is only by making the war defensively or to avenge an injustice, that one regarded it as Juste, and in such cases, the Byzantines believed that God would protect them.

Great battles of the Byzantine empire

Time protobyzantine

Battle of Tricaméron (533)
Battle of Taginae (552)
Battle of Ninive (627)
Battle of Yarmouk (636)
Battle of Carthage (698)
Head office of Constantinople (718)

Time mésobyzantine

Battle of Pliska (811)
Battle of Anchialus (917)
Battle of Kleidion (1014)
Battle of Mantzikert (1071)
Battle of Dyrrhachium (1081)
Battle of Levounion (1091)
Head office of Nicée (1097)
Battle of Sirmium (1167)
Battle of Myrioképhalon (1176)

Late time

Battle of Pélagonie (1259)
Fall of Constantinople (1453)

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