Brotherhoods soufies
The followers of the Sufism, affirm that it was born at the same time almost that Islam, and that it is based on the words of the Prophet, as a contemplative saint. He would be the first mystic. The first soufis sought before a a whole rule of life, a spiritual route to go towards God. Certain brotherhoods have methods, habits and rites rather curious. The brotherhoods which met other beliefs sometimes practiced a certain religious syncretism (maraboutisme, worships African. animism).
A very known brotherhood is that of the Dancing dervishes . They dance while rotating, until reaching the extase. They thus go barefeet on embers.
One of the popular characters of this Sufism is Nasr Eddin Hodja, immortalized through anecdotes spread in all East, including in Greece.
History
At the origin, first ascetics: 8th-10th century
Ahmad ibn `Ajiba (1747-1809), soufi Moroccan, makes go up one of the possible etymologies of the word Tassawuf (Soufisme, CF the article) to the word Suffa (the bench), it explains this source by the idea that:“The soufis resemble to “People of the Bench” by the firmness of their orientation (towards God) and by their renouncement of the world”.
This idea testifies to the eminently ascetic character of the life of the first soufis whose aspiration and mode of subsistence recalled indeed their glorious elder that were “People of the Bench” ( Ahl Al-Suffa ). Having very left behind them to leave to join the Prophet with Médine between 622 and 630, this one held for them a sector of the long gantry of the mosque (which was an extension of its own house) as well as a stone bench. Among the particular regards that still Muhammad testified to them, a tradition reports that it would have transmitted the formulas to them which all Moslems pronounce after the prayer: Glory with God, praises with God, God is largest. Protected from Muhammad therefore were not qualified soufis but belonged to the companions (Sahaba) to equal of all those which, as Moslems, had seen it at least once.
This trade-guild ( Suhba ) original corresponding to the Golden age of the time of the Revelation saw being born the first Moslem expression from a spiritual confraternity structuring itself around a Master. When Muhammad die into 632, this tradition remains but its specifically ascetic form is followed only by some. The first soufis are named between them will fûqaras, the poor, being defined thus less by the smallness of their means that by their existential recourse to God. Already a spiritual elite was formed via the two well guided caliphs (the khoulafah Rashidun), Abou Bakr (570-634) and' Ali ibn Abi Talib (600-661). It is still necessary to await the middle of the 8th century to see one of these primitive ascetics indicated being of the name of soufi and four centuries still so that the first true gatherings of soufis as brotherhoods are born. This authorizes us to spread out the structuring of the Sufism according to three great periods: First energy of 8th at the 10th century, the second of 10th at the 13th century and the third of 13th at the 19th century.
The first great period corresponds to the life of the first great figures of the Sufism and their experiment of the mystical way. During the second period, spirituality soufie is theorized and started to be defined compared to the Islamic law and theology. The third period is that which sees being born the great Community structures of confreric type whose growth is continuous until 19th.
This periodisation finds according to us its logic in the fact that the Sufism as a spiritual tradition rests above all on an experimentation of the things. The first ascetics who tasted with the mystical experiment allowed the theorists following centuries to profit from a strong foundation for the theoretical construction of the Sufism and the exposure of its doctrines. The diagrams and technical terms that Junayd and other Al-Ghazali will establish will be only the explanation of this science of the revealing, these spiritual hermeneutics. It is only after will be able to extend the movement confreric. The time when the first ascetics live corresponds historically to the first Moslem dynasty of the Omeyyades whose Damas is the capital from 660 to 750. However, it is at the edge of the Euphrate, that the hearth of asceticism in Islam is located. The towns of Basra and Kufa radiate first great figures of the Sufism. It is here that for the first time, a famous preacher will employ the word “soufi”. Hassan Al-Basri (642-728), of origin médinoise, takes part in it in the formation of a little all the branches of Moslem sciences. However, it is especially its piety, its sermons as its outlines of spiritual interpretations of the Coran which mark the incipient Sufism deeply. There is nothing astonishing to see mentioning its name at the base of many initiatory chains. Kufa as for it holds its spiritual dimension of the presence of certain companions but especially of Ali ibn Abi Talib itself and his descent whose celebrates it Ja' far Al-Sidiq (699-765).
Towards 777 appears the first initiatory chain going back to `Ali, passing through Ibrahim Ibn Adham and who will become the Adhamiyya brotherhood thereafter, that is to say one of the very first existing brotherhoods. Originating in Balkh, formed in Basra, Ibn Adham will withdraw themselves close to Antioche and will take again with other Masters soufis the syriaque eremitic tradition. Asceticism is the first expression which spirituality soufie knew. Ibn Khaldun could bring this irrefutable fact by the constitution closer to Islam not only as a prosperous civilization but especially as a means for certain people D `of making there career (theologists, lawyers etc) i.e. consolidate itself in an attitude that the soufis judged contrary to a state of search. The latter would undoubtedly have been diverted of that while being insulated, and even being marginalized of this company and by-there same became warning signals for the people, showing by their existence even the vanity of some to lock up the spirit in the letter. It is in this context that it is necessary to replace the injunction of large holy the soufie of the time Rabia Al Adawiyya (Mr. into 801) not to not adore God “by fear of Its Hell nor desire of Its Paradise but by pure aspiration to contemplate Its Face”.
Born in Basra, former freed slave who renonça until the marriage to devote itself only to God, Rabi' has Al-Adawiya is a major figure of the Sufism. Its immense radiation was worth the veneration of its contemporaries to him and the thin writings that it remains us of her also do of it one of the first cantors of the divine love. In this traditional age of the Sufism, Rabi' has explores, like others, the paths of this mystic. Jointly, the first ascetics warn the commun run of the believers against unconcern or the facility. These warning statements will take various forms according to their experiments.
At the 9th century century, Baghdad, new Abbasid capital, radiates in all the fields. It attracts obviously all the Masters like their disciples. Let us retain Al-Muhassibi (781-857) whose name refers to the concept of examination of conscience ( Muhasaba ), concept which constitutes the heart of its principal work, “the Observance of the rights of God” and where one finds all the intellectuality of the school of Basra. This city, with others still resist for some time the attraction of the capital but too close Kufa is already absorbed. Other urban poles become centers of diffusion and true schools from which come from very great figures of this traditional Sufism. Thus it for Nichapour in Khorasan and Balkh in Transoxiane is.
In Egypt and Syria, they are the concepts of Divine love and Knowledge which are conveyed by large Dhû l-Nûn Al-Misri (771-860). In the Khorasan, Abû Yazid Al-Bistami (Mr. in 874) prints its personality all the Eastern Sufism with the concept of spiritual intoxication. The remarks that it holds are the subject often of deep comments nonfree from developments metaphysics:
“One questioned Abû Yazid on the asceticism. He answered: - It does not have any value. I was ascetic only three days in my life. The first, I gave up this world, the second, with beyond, and the third, with all that is not God. I then heard this call: what do you want? - Nothing to want, I answered, because I am that which is desired (Murad) and You are that which wants (Murid). ”
These “theopathic phrases” (Shatahat) are completely comparable with those of Rabi' has and one it even function “to draw aside from the Way the limits of a tradition from now on established too well” (Denis Gril). One finds his name in the initiatory chain of the Naqchabandiyya. In the same line we find Abu l-Mughith Al-Husayn, called Al-Hallaj (858-922), “the carder” (of the consciences). Hallaj followed a time the teaching of several Masters soufis before separating from them and leaving to testify to its experiment through a long tour which carried out it of Iran to the borders of China. It is of return to Baghdad, that he pronounced the famous sentence: “I am the truth” (Anna Al-Haqq). Expressing then with the eyes of all its spiritual state of union with the divine one. It is known as in the Sufism that Hallaj was initially condemned by the spiritual Masters of its time before being it by the lawyers. This would correspond to the rule paramount not to reveal the secrecies of initiation, the spiritual revealings fruits of the mystical experiment, with a foreign public with that. As example, Hallaj was precisely condemned to have claimed that one could make the pilgrimage without going to Mecque. The public testimony of its states of spiritual intoxication did not prevent the formation of a way which counts several thousands of disciples about the 11th century.
This central figure of the Sufism first time marks the apogee of an ascetic tradition which must now supervise its speech, to be made more discrete to avoid the charges of heresy coming from now on the very powerful body of Oulémas. This reform of the Sufism will pass by another Bagdadien, Junayd (Mr. in 911).
Unanimously celebrated like a very large Master (the lord of the soufis), Abû Qasim Al-Junayd Al-Bagdadi represents with Al-Muhasibi a new spiritual orientation where clearness overrides intoxication. In that, he preaches a certain prudence as regards mystical testimonys of experiments which could mislay the believers of the revealed law. Nevertheless, it draws from Coran and Sunna the explanations of the declarations of some soufis like Bistami or Hallaj which it had besides a time for disciple. According to him the spiritual rapture his source in the ontological pact (Mithaq) that God concludes with His creatures in their asking - “amn't I take Your Lord? ”. This paramount engagement of humanity flashes back at the soufis in the form of intoxication, of the rapture, even of the extinction as a God or the creature merges with its Creator like the water drop with the ocean. Thus the remarks extatic of some soufis are they enlightened: “That which is damaged in the manifestations of Glory expresses according to what destroys; when God withdraws it from the perception of sound me and that it notes nothing any more in him but God, it describes It. ” This is not without recalling the Al-Hallaj words on Truth (Al-Haqq). As Junayd considers it as the state of extinction (Fana') must be imperatively exceeded to arrive to external sobriety and thus to a socially possible Sufism. A proverb soufi expresses this reality as follows: “It is necessary to have the body in the shop and the heart in the divine Presence. ” The teaching of Junayd, compiled in epistles where it treats metaphysics Être as well as rules of the Way, made it possible Islam to be based on strong foundations before deploying the great systems of its mystical theology. Its enormous influence was worth to him the nickname of “Prince of the Order” and the large majority of the future brotherhoods will go from fact t0 the “Way of Junayd. ”
Theoretical developments with the Masters founders: 10th-13th century
The disciples of Junayd still live Baghdad. Among them of large thinkers like Abû Bakr Al-Shibli (Mr. in 946) and Muhammad Al-Niffari (Mr. in 981) receive many soufis come to collect the spiritual heritage of the “Master of the Masters”. The teaching of Junayd and the writings which they leave will mark the beginning of a large company of composition of works. It is what characterizes this period which sees flowering a great number of handbooks on the Sufism.“The Book of the Radiations” (Kitab lit) of Sarraj (Mr. in 988) benefits amply from the school of Baghdad while magnifiant the other spiritual surfaces of Khorasan (Bistami) and Egypt (Dhul-Nûn Al-Misri). In parallel, other authors like Kalabadhi (Mr. in 995) or Abû Talib Al-Makki (Mr. in 996) get busy to defend the orthodoxy of the Sufism as a science of Islam with whole share. The first makes a presentation of the dires soufis and the second gathers in a synthesis the whole of the Moslem rites as well as the practices soufies. He insists particularly on the regularity of the invocation (Dhikr) on which he makes entirely depend the progression on a disciple. From where the name of “Food of the Hearts” (Qût Al-Qulûb) which it gives to its talk.
In the next century, Abû `Abd `L Rahman Al-Sûlami (936-1021), disciple of Sarraj, fact him also work of synthesis by melting in its “Stories of soufis” (Tabaqat Al-Sûfiya) the teaching of the various schools. It links without confusing them the ascetic method, the Sufism of Baghdad, the spiritual knighthood (Futuwa) of Nichapour and the “Way of the Blame” Malamati by showing their common intention to approach the prophetic model.
The futuwa is an good example of impregnations of the spirit of the Sufism within the Moslem companies in what it constitutes precisely the spiritual base of initiatory and corporative organizations (certain trade associations for example) parallel to the mystical orders. It holds in fact at the same time of the knighthood and of the Western medieval trade-guild and expresses itself primarily by an ethics of “beautiful acting”.
The Sufism thus seeks to be legitimated in a direction of opening and concretization of its precepts. Qûchayri (986-1072) directs its writings (Risâla) towards practical teaching: the council with the disciple, spiritual suitabilities enters will fûqaras and with the sheik. One of the basic handbooks of this time is “the revealing of the mysteries for those which have a heart” (Kachf Al-mahdjûb Li arbâb Al-Qûlub). In this work Hûjwiri (Mr. in 1076), originating in Ghazna in current the Afghanistan, counts the various circles of soufis which it could meet during his long voyages. It counts of them twelve of the Turkestan as far as Syria while passing by Khorasan where it places the hearth of origin. This inventory is especially based on great spiritual typologies of the groups which it observed. Its writings not only make it possible to note that the various lesson traverses a large Arab geographical surface and Persian but also that the first steps of the confrerism are henceforth completely detectable. Now, the work of Al-Ghazali will be able to close this period of structuring of the Sufism.
Abû Hamid Mûhammad Al-Ghazali (1058-1111) is a major figure of the history of Islam. Khorasanien like its famous elder, it is born with Tûs where it receives, with his/her brother Ahmed, her first spiritual education of Farmadhi (Mr. in 1084), successor of Qûchayri. Party to study theology with Nichapour, it is not long in being distinguished and named in 1091 director of the university of Baghdad, Al-Nizamiya. Its radiation touches then with the highest levels of power califal. Two years later, at 35 years, it is touched by a deep existential crisis which obliges it to leave its functions and to leave to undertake an ascetic life which will last ten years. He will report his experiment in his autobiography “Error and Delivery” (Al-Munqid min Adalal). The writings of Mûhassibi, those of Junayd and Qût Al-Qûlub of Abû Talib Al-Makki are also referred there like source of inspiration of its major work.
The “reactivation of sciences of the religion” (Aldine Ihyâ' `ulûm) completes the assimilation of the principles of the Sufism at learned Oulémas prepared already well by the former works. However, Ghazâli overflows the traditional framework from now on of the handbooks to project its reflection in a broader vision where it reconciles philosophy and the most orthodoxe theology with the Sufism which it regards as the only way able to lead to the certainty. Including all exoteric and esoteric religious sciences, it definitively reorientates them towards the Moslem tradition and the behavioral ideal of the Prophet. With Ghazali ends the second period of the evolution of the Sufism. This one was inaugurated by Junayd which underlined the need for clarifying the Way with the eyes of all, since the illiterate ascetic to the scientist theologist. Large Masters appeared, formed of the disciples who made of it in their turn. In parallel, we notice that the soufis travel much and it is not rare that they follow the teaching of several Masters. Gradually, the transmission chains are formed and trace the channel of the strongest influences. The Sufism thus will continue its evolution on the one hand while being based on the sum of Ghazâli to work to link mystical and lawyers and on the other hand by structuring the initiatory influence of the Masters in increasingly concrete forms which will become the brotherhoods themselves.
The use of the term “sees” to designate the brotherhoods soufies is particularly adapted for the medieval period. We cannot certainly speak yet about order as such especially if this word wants to translate the fixed and established idea of structure, the more so as it is rare even nowadays to find of it an example convincing. Always it is that it would be rather the mobility which precedes until approximately 15th century. The Sufism is ballotté by various currents, outsides (upheaval political, invasions) and interiors (Appearance of the large Masters founders which one comes to meet by far). Also one calls this confreric genesis the time of the “Khirqa primitives”.
The khirqa is in the beginning the gift which the sheik with his disciple makes to mark his entry in the spiritual Way. This perhaps clothing, a turban or even a part of fabric but the symbol are the same one: the candidate carries the khirqa in the same way that it carries the spiritual impulse of the Master. In other words, the new disciple is covered with a blessing and a special protection which takes its source in the person of the Prophet. In its highest developments, it is possible that this transmission relates to the spiritual secrecy (Sirr) clarified higher. Generally and for the time which interests us (12th, 13th century), the khirqa expresses the diffusion of an initiatory influence generally rather loose and scattered.
This mode of teaching is certainly structured than the simple trade-guild (suhba) of the soufis of formerly (of 8th at the 12th century) but is not it more yet as much as will be the Community groups centered on a sheik and than we will name brotherhoods or Turuq (plur. De Tarîqa*) as from the 15th century. Historical factors will be of an major importance in the continuation of the evolution of the ways soufies. At the political level the weakening of the caliphate Abbasside dice the middle of the 9th century divides the empire and leaves the place to several Shiite movements. One of them, left old Ifriqiya conquers Egypt, there founds Cairo and pushes to the Western coast of Arabia. The Fatimides (969-1171) which consequently controls the Holy Cities of Mecque and of Médine lorgnent now on the Iran. Baghdad is with the hands of another dynasty not Shiite, the Buyides (935-1055). The impotent caliph of this empire Abbasside dying man nevertheless remained sunnite. In 1055, it calls the Turks Seldjoukides who reverse Buyides and stop the projection of Fatimides of Egypt. The new Seldjoukide dynasty and soon the Ayyoubides (1171-1250) successors of Fatimides go restored the sunnism and to solicit for that the Masters soufis whose charisma will be much more rassemblor that any other religious speech.
Later, in first half of the 13th century, the invasions Mongolian break on all Asia, involving the rich person ruin quoted as well as the exodus of a great mass of population towards the West. In this context, the soufis will offer to this wave of migrants a network of solidarity which will contribute largely to their radiation and their popularity near the commun run of the believers. But let us make place now with these famous Masters who attached their name to the brotherhoods of today.
Abd Al Qadir Al-Jilani (1083-1166) is originating in the province in Gilan (or Djilan), in the south-west of the Caspian Sea. He studies jurisprudence hanbalite in Baghdad and takes the Way (or the khirqa) of a sheik of the name of Hammad Al-Dabbas (Mr. in 1131). After a long retirement in the Iraqi desert of which it arises at the end of twenty-five years, it finds Baghdad where it starts to preach and quickly acquires the reputation of a very large doubled scientist of a teacher in the way soufie. Scrupulous lawyer at the same time as considered spiritual guide, it indicates rules to all his disciples in particular in his work: Al-Ghunyia Li-talibi Tariq Al-Haqq. Its teaching is in the line of the Way of Junayd and the thought of Ghazali. `Abd' L Qader sticks initially to Coran and Sunna before authenticating or refuting the various practices soufies or the theological speculations of its time. In this direction it maintains the mode of knowledge based on the revealing (constant Reason) while enracinant its disciples in the respect of the law and socio-economic realities what causes to harmonize the Sufism with the company and in particular the various circles up to now marginalized. The mystic exceeds thanks to him the restricted framework of the spiritual retirements and becomes accessible in the majority from the Moslems. Its influence is such as dice before its death, it exceeds by far the borders of Iraq and a large range of personalities will have it in high regard, which they are the thinkers more being wary with regard to the mystic or the future Masters who will have taken of him his khirqa. For as much `Abd' L Qader does not found a way of alive sound. It envisages nevertheless the succession of the religious school (madrassa) which it directed since the death of its professor. These wire quickly make of it a zawiya* with which they associate the school as well as a mosque and the mausoleum of the sheik. Qadiriyya will be spread truly only as from the 15th century century and will manage to be established in countries like India, Turkestan, Arabia, Egypt, North Africa and certain countries of the Soviet ex-Union.
In this 12th century, Abd Al Qadir Al-Jilani makes it possible the Iraq to remain the center of the spiritual exchanges of the Muslim world. At the next century, this primacy moves in Egypt where the way of Ahmad Al-Rifa' I (Mr. in 1183) profits from the policy pro sunnite of Ayyoubides. Rifa' iyya is of all the kinds that which develops most quickly. In same time, an Andalusian trained by several Moroccan Masters makes the voyage to Baghdad where it probably meets Abd Al Qadir Al-Jilani. Abou Madyane (Mr. in 1198) will become the initiatory independent source of the Maghrebian Sufism. Patron saint of Tlemcen initiates a great number of disciple and its influence covers the Maghreb and part of the Middle East. It is here an good example of transmission of a khirqa, of a not tallied but very major spiritual print.
Another good example is in the person of that which the soufis will indicate like largest of the Masters (Sheik Al-Akbar): Aldine Muhyi Ibn Arabî (1165-1240). Completely major figure of the Sufism, born him also in Andalusia (Murcie), the influence of its thought is determining as regards the metaphysical expression of the way soufie. Its doctrines of unicity Être (Wahdat Al-wujud) recall that from the point of view of essential reality, the existence belongs only to God and thus that the human natures and divine are deeply plain. God doing only one with creation, the reality of the latter can be only relative and proceeds of the divine light propagation through more or less opaque envelopes to the image of the circular waves produced by the fall of an object in water. The similarity of God and the creatures is then explained by the fact why they are the reflections of His light. In spite of the importance of its legacy, Ibn Arabî is not paradoxically at the origin of any way in particular. It took to the khirqa several Eastern Masters, Westerners or and made gift of his (Akbariyya) with many others soufis. Among the heirs to this underground initiatory transmission, let us retain the Emir Abd El-Kader the Algerian (1808-1883).
If Iraq is related to Junayd, Iran and the Central Asia in general refer rather to Bistami. Since the 10th century structured themselves in Khorasan of the communities called Khanqah. It is they which contribute to adapt Islam to the wandering Turkish tribes (Qalandaris, Yasavis). In the south of the sea of Aral, in Khârezm, the “modeller of saints” Najm Oud DIN Kûbra (Mr. in 1221) educates a great number of disciple who themselves will give rise to great names including two of the largest mystical poets of the Sufism: `Attar and Djallal el DIN Rûmi (12th and 13th centuries). Mû' in Aldine Tchichti (Mr. in 1236), another of its disciples, diffuses Tchichtiyya in India in a spirit of great tolerance with the Hindu culture. This Eastern cradle is swept soon of full whip by the troops of Gengis Khan.
In 1258, the Mongols take Baghdad and put an end to the Abbasid Empire. Their raid pushes the Moslem people towards banks of the Mediterranean. The orders soufis incipient, carried by the wave, now will mix more with the company and will renew the Western orders. At the end of the 13th century, much of soufis belong to Oulémas and the agreement still will be accentuated. The time of the “Khirqa primitives” is completed. Place at the brotherhoods.
Rise and changes of the brotherhoods: 13th-19th century
Egypt thus became a center where converge of many Moslems. The dynasty Ayyoubide (1171-1250) and the sultanate Mamelouk which succeeds to him (1250-1517) contribute to stabilize the area where many migrants because of his proximity with the Holy Cities settle. This mixing also benefits the brotherhoods which renew themselves by the means of Masters come from different backgrounds.A Morrocan, Abou Hassan Al-Chadhili (1197-1258), will mark in-depth the Egyptian Sufism. Holder of Khirqa d' Abû Madyan, it settles with Alexandria from where its influence extends as far as High Egypt. The Chadhiliyya will subdivide in its turn in many branches in all the the Maghreb. Let us retain for our account Darqawiyya (19th) which itself will give rise to the `Alawiyya of the sheik Ahmed Al `Alawi of Mostaganem (1869-1934). Let us note in the passing that Chadhiliyya is through Darqawiyya, one of the ways by which was revivified Qadiriyya Bûtchichiyya Morrocan woman in first half of the 20th century. Generally, works of Ibn `Atâ Allah (Mr. in 1309), second successor of the Way chadhili, very widespread and abundantly are read and commented on per number of soufis.
Let us go up towards the Anatolia. Djalal el DIN Rûmi (1207-1273) illustrates well the exodus of the soufis of Central Asia, him which comes from Transoxiane (Balkh). The founder of the Dancing dervishes established with Konya founds there the Mawlawiyya (or Mevleviye) which spreads in all the Ottoman Empire.
A little later, another emigrant of Khorasan, directly resulting from the wandering Sufism of the tribes turkmenes, Hadji Bektache (Mr. in 1337), founds the Bektachiyya. Always in the mystical tradition korasaniene, Safi Aldine Al-Ardabali (Mr. in 1334) is heir to the way of Sohrawardi (1155-1191) which itself goes back to Ahmed Al-Ghazali. Safawiyya knows it also a great success near the tribes turkmenes. At the 16th century, the descendants of Aldine Safi become Shiite and found the dynasty Séfévide (1501-1736). Resulting from the same stock but having a very different destiny, the Khalwatiyya of' Umar Al-Khalwati, is propagated starting from the the Caucasus (Tabriz) in all the Ottoman Empire. Just as Aldine Baha Naqchband (Mr. in 1389) which, supplanting the various ways of Iran and Central Asia, extends the Naqchabandiyya on everyone Moslem sunnite as far as India. The majority of the ways which are established in India come from the multiple branches of the Sohrawardiyya. Let us quote the Chattariyya of `Abd' Allah Al-Chattar which spreads this way of origin Persian until Sumatra. The large majority of the brotherhoods which are born after the 15th century come from those previously quoted.
Up to now, the brotherhoods seem to be for the majority in harmony with the companies in which they fit. Their material organizations just like their doctrines inspired by the mystical thought of Ibn `Arabi, continue to impregnate the small people as much that the urban well-read men. More still, fastening with a brotherhood became a distinction with the mode which it is not moved to post concerning certain elites. This phenomenon illustrates especially the fact that ways soufie, being led to all, become the mirror of a company and all the characters which composes it.
In the center of these various forms of affiliations remain the sheik who is presented now in the form of patron saint. It is in its house that the brotherhood is born and becomes thereafter the head office called according to the places Ribat, Zaouïa, khanqah, tekké or dergah. The saint éponyme of a way is not therefore always that which really founds it and it often should be waited until a forthcoming successor intervenes so that it insufflates his movement of expansion to him. It is in particular the case of Chadhiliyya and the Rahmaniya. The meetings of Dhikr attract the candidates ( Muridin ) towards the house of the sheik who develops, becomes a zawiya and creates appendices in areas sometimes very far away from the place of origin. The persons in charge authorized of the sheik ( moqaddem , khalifa , naqib ) represent his initiatory line but can sometimes renew the way of origin which will bear from now on their name, associated or not with the initial name. The multiple affiliations “inter-confrérique” which practical the followers are more or less well tolerated according to the orders. The surfaces Mameluke and Othoman accept them naturally contrary to Iran.
The brotherhoods fit in the company where they provide a function of weight in space civil by integration and the catch in social contribution of the populations needy, by ensuring for example the education of the children. In this direction, some zawiyas even could profit from goods of dead hands (Waqf) enabling them to escape exactions in any kind.
The centuries which follow, in particular 18th and 19th centuries, however mark a real transformation in the orders into place followed by a creation of many others. This change is born from a basic movement which sees converging at the same time the fall of the great Ottoman Empires, séfévides and moghols, their progressive replacement by Western colonization, and the assertion of Mecque as a point focal distance of a revival of Islamic sciences like confreric turntable of the Sufism.
The membership of a tarîqa thus allowed by the pilgrimage the Holy Cities a mixing of cultures and spiritual experiments which very often were foreign from/to each other. What could be looked at as stimulative for the ones was perhaps not it for others, mecquois which more felt this diversity like a danger of disparity for the community of the believers. The revival of the study of the hadith and the ijtihad, the independent legal reasoning, thus took part of a handing-over in question of particularisms which one tried to attenuate, as of an attempt at restoration of the very popular brotherhoods soufies which one tried to substitute for the idea of Way Muhammadienne (Tarîqa Muhammadiyya) which, by stressing the person of the prophet, would even synthesize would compensate the other ways.
In the beginning, the concept of Tarîqa Muhammadiyya, takes all its depth only in one esoteric approach where the ways, for necessarily different that they are, are not vivified of it by the same spiritual impulse that we identify with the initiatory secrecy, the Sirr. This being more explicit still through the following proverb: “Water is one, and the flowers are multiple”.
Very different is the modern idea of Muhammadienne Way which is closely related to a preoccupation of reinforcement of orthodoxy and a conformity to the Law. In parallel, the decline of certaiens brotherhoods soufies contributes to feed from criticisms on the authenticity of the old religious models. The movement mecquois and its theorists in call to Ibn Taymiyyah (Mr. in 1328) to criticize besides the exaggerations of the popular confrerism through in particular the practice of the worship of the saints, pilgrimages minor near sanctuaries or of mausoleums and feeding with an ancestral popular culture from request from grace (Luck).
One spoke a long time about “néo-Sufism” to qualify the transformations which the ways knew, evolving to true orders, more organized, hierarchical, frankly militant even rebellious in front of the occupation of their territories by the foreigner. For, it proven forever as much that the lesson promulgated inside the zawiyas changed, in particular concerning the metaphysics of Ibn `Arabi and concept of unicity Être (Wahdat Al-Wujud). Would the change have been only external? This thesis today still, is very discussed. For our account, let us specify all the same that new brotherhoods are born indeed. Their diffusion is more proselyte than in the past and their “Koranic legitimacy” perhaps better constant because of formation of their founder.
The news turuq essaiment initially in East Africa then, by the action of the Tidjaniya and the Rahmaniya, in West dice and North Africa end of the 18th century. Other ways follow, strongly influenced by the thought of Ahmad Ibn Idriss Al-Resident of Fez (1750-1837), a Maghrebian sheik installed with Mecque. This last is a savage adversary of the worship of the saints and deeply calls into questions initiatory filiations of the traditional brotherhoods. It itself is however affiliated with a brotherhood subsidiary of Chadhiliyya, Khâdiriyya, whose character éponyme, Al-Khidr, allow us besides to raise a corner of this paradoxical attitude and a little the subtlety of his thought.
Mentioned in the Coran as the instructor of Brace which it confuses besides by the superiority of its knowledge, Al-Khidr is the initiator par excellence, sometimes choosing to guide the solitary individual which in this way will be directly connected to the prophet Muhammad, passing in addition to traditional filiation. Some choyoukh indicates it for this purpose in their initiatory transmission chain (silsila) like an authentic transmitter of the way. This “initiatory short cut” thus reduced at least the human chain of the successive Masters and consequently, the errors of course of the silsila. Direct filiation by Al-Khidr where by the Prophet himself is thus with the eyes of Idriss Al-Resident of Fez a guarantee of authenticity at the same time as a bright expression of the preeminence of Tarîqa Muhammadia which abolished in fact all institutional divisions of the Sufism.
Its reputation very quickly exceeded the area of Hedjaz so much so that one came to consult it of all shares, of the Maghreb as far as India. Its succession was bitterly disputed, especially between two of its closer disciples: Muhammad `Ali Al-Sanusi (Mr. in 1859) and Muhammad Uthman Al-Mighrani. These two men melted their own way and turned to Africa where, following the example Tidjaniyya, they contributed to start again the Sufism to even impel a company of conversion in areas still little or not touched by Islam. Drawing aside old the zawiyas, the new structures, centralized and hierarchical, allowed a greater investment of the brotherhoods in the businesses of the world.
This engagement, one said it, could even go towards the catch of the weapons, the defense armed with territories, especially in Central Asia and China, in front of the Russian and Chinese imperial forces. Here, Naqchabandiyya occupied the front of the scene and tried to secure a relative protection if not to acquire new spaces (like the takeover of the Moslems in Yunnan of 1856 to 1873). This voluntarism is the expression of a strong reforming activity interns with the order and which is observed still nowadays.
This same phenomenon is also attested in India and the West Indies where on bottom of British and Dutch colonialism, of new reformed brotherhoods, rise against the deviances of the old habits and enjoignent the populations with the Jihad, generally against nonMoslems: imperial, colonizing and even sikhs.
At the 19th century, the brotherhoods soufies are widespread in everyone Moslem, except perhaps in the zones of secular opposition to these forms of religiosities like Yemen and later, Arabia wahabite. But for the time being, and until the end of the century, Mecque is really the crucible of this Islamic revival to which good numbers of believers draw: lawyers, main soufis, military chiefs etc
What we called the néo-Sufism is not to however oppose so easily with the old confreric manner. The new orders admittedly are organized better and would tend for the majority to play a larger part within the companies (even in the long term to politicize itself for some). But this is not there the natural result of this evolution of the Sufism which initially élitiste and subject to deposit, was gradually seen recognizing its legitimacy and its mission of education and assistance on the one hand deeply enracinées in the prophetic example and on the other hand, tended towards a general project of blooming and balance of a community. It is the same for its doctrinal expression and its extatic practices which do not have, seems it, ever radically modified.
Overall, the renewal confreric launched starting from the end of the 18th century is only one component of a broad movement of reform. So in its first phase, this one carries the Sufism, it will harden gradually in its next phases and will exclude soon the Moslem brotherhoods from its political, intellectual and religious intentions. Because let us not forget that it is in this context, in Hedjaz, and the same time, the end of the 18th century, that is born the doctrines resulting from the Wahhabisme. This one really fertile only with will not be orée of the 20th century century but already of other currents of thoughts will have been able to infiltrate in the Moslem companies (salafism inter alia) and to organize the internal lawsuit of the traditional institutions which périclitèrent in front of the colonizing company of the occident.
Brotherhoods soufies
- Ahl-el Haqq (9th century)
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the Nématollahi (14th century)
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the Qadiriyya (11th century)
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Koubrawiya (12th century)
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Rifaîya (12th century)
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Sohrawardiya (12th century)
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the Chadhiliyya (fine 12th century)
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Qalandariya (13th century)
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Bektachiya (13th century)
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Khalwatiya (14th century)
- the Rahmaniya (18th century)
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the Naqchabandiyya (14th century)
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the Aïssawa (15th century)
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the Tijaniya or Tidanes (18th century)
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the Idrîsiya or Ahmadîya (19th century)
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Chichtiya
Sources
- Malek Chebel, Dictionary of the Moslem symbols , ED. Albin Michel
- Ben Driss, Karim, the revival of the Sufism sunnite in Morocco , University of Quebec, Thesis of doctorate in sociology, 1995.
- Depont and Coppolani, Moslem religious brotherhoods , Paris, Geuthrer, 1897, Reprinting 1987.
- Michon, Jean-Louis, the Moroccan soufi Ahmad ibn `Ajiba and its Semi' raj, glossary of the Moslem mystic , Paris, Vrin, 1990.
- Popovic, Alexandre and Veinstein, Gilles, ways of Allah , Paris, Beech, 1996.
- Reeber, Michel, Islam, Toulouse, Milan Editions, 1998.
- Sedgwick, Mark J., the Sufism , Paris, Stag, In short n° 57,2001.
- Amrous, Mustafa, religious brotherhoods in Morocco and the Islamism of 19th in the 20th century , Nanterre B.U Paris 10,1985.
- Ibn Khaldun, Al Muqaddima , transl. by V. Monteil, Paris, Sindbad, 1997.
- Kadiri, Mohammed, zaouias in Morocco, religious function and political role, thesis of Doctorate in right, Perpignan, 2002.
Bonds
- Tariqa Halveti Yerrahi in university Spain
- Site of history of the religions: article on the brotherhoods soufis.
- the Soufi Newspaper: articles on the Sufism
- the page of the Sufism: general page on the Sufism
- Philisophie and religion of the world in quotations and images
- Tariqa.org: site of a disciple of Tariqa Qadiriya
- Savors-soufies: Very complete site on the Sufism in general and the brotherhood qadiriya in particular
- http://www.irfanokulu.net/francais.html
- Nashbandi-Haqqani of Canada
- Sufism in Coran, the traditions Prophetic and lesparoles of the scientists of Islam
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