Alexandre the Large one

See also: Alexandre Large (homonymy) the, Alexandre III, Alexandre, Alexandre of Macedonia

Alexandre Large the or Alexandre of Macedonia (in Greek old/ Aléxandros O Makedốn , meaning “protective or repoussor of the man”) (born on July 21st -356 with Peeled, dead on June 13rd -323 with Babylon) is one of the most famous characters of the Antiquité.

Wire of Philippe {{II}}, raises Aristote and king of Macedonia since -336, it becomes one of the largest conquerors of the history. He makes of his small kingdom the Master of the immense Persian empire achéménide, advances to banks of the Indus and founds nearly seventy quoted, of which Alexandria in -331.

The myth of Alexandre is explained mainly by his claims with the universal conquest. This aspiration, at the same time impossible and almost carried out before it is struck down at the thirty three years age, has as a consequence - during a very short time - a political unit ever found then between the Occident and the East.

The heritage of Alexandre, marked by an attempt at fusion of the cultures Greek and Eastern, was divided between its generals to form the various kingdoms and dynasties of the hellenistic period.

Biography

Birth and filiation

Alexandre was born with Pella, the capital of the Royaume of Macedonia, on July 21st -356. He is the son of Philippe {{II}} of Macedonia and Olympias, princess of Épire, his third wife. By his mother, he is the nephew of Alexandre Molosse, king of Épire, territory which is located nowadays between the Greek area of Épire and the south of current the Albania.

A legend, known as of Antiquity, affirms that Olympias did not design Alexandre with Philippe, who was afraid of it and his practice to sleep in company of Serpent S, but with Zeus. Alexandre makes use of these popular tales to fine policies, referring to the god rather than in Philippe when it evokes his father. Another legend going back from the 3rd century, origin Egyptian that one and wrongfully allotted to Callisthène, the Romance of Alexandre , wants that Alexandre is the son of the last Egyptian Pharaon of, Nectanébo {{II}}.

By his Philippe father, Alexandre claims to go down from Téménos of Argos, itself going down from Héraclès, wire of Zeus - for this reason, the dynasty Macedonian is called dynasty of the Argéades or Téménides. By his/her mother, Olympias, dynasty of the Éacide S, Alexandre affirms to go down from Néoptolème, wire of Achille.

According to an assertion of time, brought back inter alia by Plutarque, Alexandre was born the night even where Érostrate fire the Temple from Artémis to Éphèse, one of the seven wonders of the world ancient. Alexandre uses later this coincidence to reinforce its will have political, and proposes to finance the restoration of the temple, which is however refused by Ephésiens.

Plutarque also states that Philippe and Olympias dreamed of the future birth of their son. After having consulted Aristandre de Telmessos which determined that Olympias was pregnant and that the child would have the character of a Lion. As for its physique, it would seem that he had the walleyes and, because of a wound of war which would have sanctioned a nerve to him, the always leaning head of the left side.

Childhood and education

Alexandre has, with the eyes of the Greek dual membership. He is also a Barbare because it is a Macedonian which has an impassioned temperament and is let carry by angers of a terrible violence, heritage allotted to his/her mother, but often followed prompt repentances. It is capable of generous dashes which combine fidelities without faults to him. Its religious convictions are sullied with superstitions. However the character trait dominating of the character is without dispute no his iron will, which can go until obstinacy and the stubbornness.

In parallel, Alexandre is deeply influenced by the Greek culture. It is true that, located in the north of current Greece, Macedonia is one of the pelagic areas ancient. The spoken language is then one of the many Greek dialects and, as of the time of the king Archélaos (fine of -), the official language of the court and the chancellery Macedonian becomes the Ionian-attic. Philippe, who remained with Thèbes in the house of Épaminondas like hostage (between -369 and -367), for its part speaks it usually like his son. This last according to Plutarque speaks Macedonian only under the blow about a strong emotion.

After educatebeing educated by Léonidas, a relative of his Olympias mother and Lysimaque d' Acarnanie, Alexandre receives for tutor the philosopher Aristote of -343 with -340. This last is the son of Nicomaque, doctor of Amyntas {{III}}, the grandfather of Alexandre. It writes an annotated edition of Iliade for its pupil. Alexandre also reads Hérodote and Xénophon, authors whom it can exploit later at the time of his conquests. Alexandre appears student gifted. He by heart knows many tragedies, Iliade , and has many concepts of medicine, history and mathematics.

Several companions of childhood of Alexandre, whose Ptolémée, Philotas, Héphaestion, is found at its sides at the time of the conquest of the Asia.

The seduction of the character is undoubtedly due to this contradictory mixture: barbarian and Macedonian, mystic and realistic, violent and generous, carried by its imagination and its dream and guided by its clearness. Its inflexible will doubles of a real opportunism and an innate direction of the setting in scene.

The king of Macedonia

A prince associated with the capacity (- 338/-336)

Although regarded as Barbarian by the Athenians, the Royaume of Macedonia has, under the reign of Philippe, extended his hegemony on traditional Greece. It overcomes Athens with the Thermopyles in -352, intervenes in a conflict between Thèbes and Phocidiens, triumphs over a coalition of Athens and of Thèbes to the battles of Chéronée, in -338. Alexandre proven reliable there by ordering the cavalry and by cutting in parts the Battalion crowned of Thébains.

Philippe is also the initiator of the Ligue of Corinth, gathering all the Greek cities, except for Sparte, under his command. The league must carry the war against the Persian Empire. In -340, in the absence of his/her father left to besiege Byzance, Alexandre, at sixteen years, became regent of Macedonia.

In -337 however, a violent argument opposes the father and the son when Alexandre takes the party of his Olympias mother to which Philippe wishes to impose Cléopâtre, sister or niece of a general of Philippe, Attale, like second wife legitimates and of which it has soon a son. Alexandre must take refuge in the family of his mother in Épire. However the estrangement hardly lasts and soon forgiven, Alexandre saves the life of his father during a forwarding against the Triballes.

The elimination of any potential rival (be -336)

During the summer -336, Philippe is assassinated at the time of the marriage of his/her daughter Cléopâtre with the king of Épire, Alexandre Molosse, the brother of Olympias. The assassin is a noble young person, Pausanias, a former officer of the king who keeps a resentment against Philippe, this last having been unaware of a request that it would have made him. The historians of the Antiquité sometimes believed that the murder of Philippe had been a machination implying Olympias and perhaps Alexandre but Diodore of Sicily leans for a personal reason for the murderer. Few contemporary historians consider that Alexandre is implied in the murder of his father whereas all the control of Philippe shows that he intends to make his successor of it.

Another assumption blames Darius {{III}}, new king de Perse. Plutarque mentions letter virulent of Alexandre with Darius, where Macedonian blames Darius (and Bagoas, its top dog of which Darius gets rid quickly shortly after), for the murder of his/her father, supporting that it is Darius which had been praised near the various Greek cities in the way in which it had made assassinate Philippe.

After the death of Philippe, the army proclaims Alexandre, then twenty years old, new king de Macédoine. The Greek cities like Athens and Thèbes, which had lent allegiance to Philippe, are not so in a hurry to make in the same way with respect to the young man. Alexandre immediately orders the execution of all his potential rivals. Thus, not to have of competitor to the throne, it makes assassinate his cousin Amyntas {{IV}}, king de Macédoine towards -360/-359 that Philippe had reversed whereas he was only one child. As for Olympias, benefitting from an absence of her son left guerroyer in north, it makes kill the son of Philippe and Cléopâtre and constrained the latter to be hung. The uncle of the latter, Attale, which is in shift in Asia with Parménion, is also assassinated. Impossible to know if it acts with the approval of Alexandre or not; always it is that new king de Macédoine does not have any more a rival able to dispute the throne to him.

Consolidation of the capacity (at the end of -336/spring -334)

Alexandre is not only king of the Macedonians, but also, like his father, Archonte with life of the Thessalie NS and hégémon (ἡγεμών, “commander-in-chief”) and autoproclamé strategist of the Ligue of Corinth. In fact, the policy of the League is entirely dictated by the Macedonians Philippe then Alexandre.

However, before taking again the project of his father to carry the war in Asia, it ensures the safety of its kingdom by two forwardings the north of Macedonia; one until the the Danube, the other in Illyrie revolted (end of the year -336 and beginning of the year -335 until summer). According to Strabon and Arrien, Celtic emissary -   ancestors of the Scordisques of the medium of -   - met Alexandre on the the Danube, on this occasion in -335. The following anecdote is reported:

When Alexandre had overcome the Gètes and had shaved their city, on the the Danube, it came to him from the embassies on all sides and inter alia Gaulois, which are (he says) great men. Alexandre then asked them what they feared more in the world, while waiting for itself so that these people say that they did not fear anything more than him: but it was undeceived because it dealt with people who did not estimate themselves less than him; they said to him that the thing of this world that they feared more was that the sky did not fall on them, which meant that they did not fear anything.

However, whereas new king de Macédoine is occupied in north, the Greek cities revolt.

The response of Alexandre is at the same time striking down, pitiless and paradoxical. Pitiless, because the town of Thèbes is entirely shaven (autumn -335) except for the citadel of the Cadmée, the native house of Pindare and the temples of the gods, his population reduced in slavery and the grounds divided between the winners. Paradoxical, because Alexandre saves Athens, too happy to subject itself to less evil. Undoubtedly is necessary it to see in this generosity the will not to destroy the principal artistic, philosophical center of the Greece, or the influence of its former Master Aristote who settles this same year -335 in Athens and founds the Lycée there. It also seems that the councils of Phocion convinced the king not to destroy the city. However, the accesses of fury at Alexandre frequently alternate with gestures of great generosity, the destruction of Thèbes and the forgiveness of Athens is only the first of a long list.

With final, Alexandre is rather not very present like sovereign in his kingdom. When it leaves the Europe in spring -334 for its forwarding in Asia, it is never there not to return.

The Conqueror

The army of Alexandre

See also: Army Macedonian, Phalange (Antiquity), Sarisse, Tactical soldier used by Alexandre Large the

Alexandre does not leave completely dismantled Macedonia. He gives to Antipater, appointed regent in the absence of the king, half of the cavalry Macedonian is approximately: 1500 men and: 12000 infantrymen. Manpower at the beginning of the forwarding of Asia are of approximately: 1800 riders, to which are added an equivalent figure of riders thessaliens and: 600 others recruited in the Greek States of the League of Corinth.

Infantrymen, undoubtedly: 32000, which constitutes famous the phalange, are recruited in the country class Macedonian. On the whole a rather weak manpower: 4400 riders approximately and hardly more: 30000 infantrymen. But throughout the forwarding of the reinforcements arrive from Macedonia and Greece, without counting the indigenous troops which will supplement manpower of the army as Alexandre advances in Asia. In addition the weakness of manpower is compensated by a great tactical superiority. The phalanges are reduced and their sarisses (long pikes whose base can be sunk into the earth and able to break the loads of cavalry) lengthened thus increasing their speed of load, so that with very tight formations, the masses and the energy kinetic of the hoplites cumulate returning the shock at the time of the contact such as it can reverse several rows of opposing infantry. The heavy cavalry compensates for the lack of handiness of the phalanges by protecting its very vulnerable sides and by attacking those of the enemy to disorganize the enemy formations and to make them vulnerable to the impact phalanges.

The battle of Granique (May -334)

Young king de Macédoine starts from his capital Pella and, in twenty days, reached Sestos in Chersonèse of Thrace. While Parménion is charged by the king with transporting the army to Abydos, head of bridge creates by Philippe {{II}} on the Hellespont, Alexandre moves towards Éléonte where it returns sacrifice to the first hero fallen at the time of the Trojan War, Protésilas. This gesture is the first of a long list which illustrates the will of the king to strike imaginations while being made pass for new the Achille, without it being possible besides to know if it is sincerely penetrated of the pride to belong to the race of the hero or if they are simple gestural theatrical bound for his soldiers and the people of Asia Mineure and of Greece.

Thus it unloads in Asia close to the supposed site of Troy, draws up furnace bridges in the temple of Athéna in Ilion, then will put a crown on the tomb of Achilles, while Héphaestion refers in the same way on that of Patrocle (to their possible homosexual relation: Élien explains thus in its History varied (, 7) that it “thus let hear that it was the nice one of Alexandre, as Patrocle had been that of Achilles”). It is only after, that Alexandre joined his army with Arisbé in four days, by circumventing by north the solid mass of Pityos.

Greek the mercenary main leader of Darius {{III}}, Memnon of Rhodos, is in favor of the scorched earth policy vis-a-vis the Macedonians, of which it estimates, rightly, the value. He proposes that the army involves towards the interior of the country, without fighting, the troops of Alexandre while the Persian fleet carries the war until in Macedonia. Memnon could legitimately hope for a revolt of the Greek cities, being based on the gold of Darius and the legitimate resentment against Alexandre following the confusion of Thèbes. But the Persian satraps are wary of the councils from abroad and do not take account of its opinion at all. Arsitès, the satrap of Phrygie, declares that it will not let burn only one house of his satrapie.

The Millet catch (May/July -334)

The victory of Alexandre has an important consequence: until the Battle of Issos, it has only simple garrisons left in the cities to be opposed to him. In the tread of Granique, Sardinian, the capital of Phrygie, goes without resistance, while Parménion seizes Dascylion. The town of Éphèse, in prey with fights of factions, where Memnon took refuge after the battle, sees the democratic party favorable to Alexandre carrying it. This one skilfully attracts itself the sympathy of the inhabitants of the city by entrusting to the temple Artémis the tribute which the city hitherto paid in Darius and by pointing out the outlaws.

The adversaries of Alexandre took refuge with Milet, where Memnon, which has just left Éphèse, takes again the things in hand after inclinations of treason of the Persian cause by Hégésistrate, the chief of the Greek mercenaries to the service of Darius. However the city is quickly taken in July -334 per Alexandre, after it had prohibited with the Persian fleet to wet on the coast by taking the Cape Mycale.

The head office of Halicarnasse (be/autumn -334)

However Memnon took refuge with Halicarnasse whose king Pixodaros, the brother of famous the Mausole, lined up side of Persians. Memnon is assisted of the Orontabès satrap and Thébain Ephialte, which swore the death of the Macedonian since the destruction of his town of origin.

Alexandre exploits the internal competitions with the city and fact of Ada, the sister of Pixodaros, that this one had reversed, the satrap of Carie. This one then adopts Alexandre like his son and in fact his heir. The majority of the Eastern satrapies will be organized according to this model. The civil capacities are given to a Persia or Asian and the military capacities with a Macedonian.

However remain to seize the city which comprises two citadels of which one on an island. Alexandre after the Millet catch has just made the error to lay off his fleet. Also can it seize only the low city while the two acropolises remain with the hands of the Greek mercenaries of Darius. Also Alexandre carries on it his road by leaving under the command of Ptolémée a troop of: 3000 infantrymen and 200 riders to continue the seat.

Alexandre seizes Pamphylie and Pisidie (winter -334/spring -333)

Alexandre moves then towards the Lycie and seizes some without much resistance. Then, with the end of the year -334 and the beginning of -333, it penetrates in Pamphylie then in Pisidie. These areas only belong very nominally to the empire achéménide. Generally these cities are autonomous and rival between them. From these competitions, Alexandre will play and receives the tender of Aspendos (in the east of the current city of Antalya), of Sidé (today the port of Selimye to approximately 60  kilometers in the east of Antalya). Then it goes up towards the Phrygie and fights the inhabitants of the town of Termessos (34  km in the North-West of Antalya) without succeeding in taking to the city, milked with benevolence their enemies of the city of Selge, seizes Sagalassos and arrives finally to Gordion (current village of Yassihöyük). It finds there reinforcements come at the same time from Macedonia and Greece as Parménion which partly had just wintered with Sardes. The government of Pamphilie and Pisidie is entrusted to Néarque.

The counter-offensive of Memnon of Rhodos (winter -334/-333)

The first outing in the country of Alexandre is finished. The situation is undecided because certainly the king of Macedonia has just gained glorious success but he must face several uncertainties. For certain members of its entourage, whose Parménion east seems he the representative, the objective of Philippe {{II}}, theorized by Isocrate with knowing the conquest of the Asia to banks of the Halys, is achieved. A vast territory is conquered by Macedonia and opened with colonization and the Hellenic influence. But Isocrate, in the projects which it had presented to Philippe considered one second solution: the destruction of the Persian empire.

It is this objective which Alexandre wishes to achieve. That explains besides why, although he proclaims his will to act in the capacity as chief of Hellènes, he rests above all, at least at the beginning, on the Macedonians considered as more reliable and attached to its person by dynastic fidelity. This is why it only remains relatively little time with Gordion, where the episode of the Gordian knot, if it is authentic, promises to him the empire of Asia (Alexandre is seen presenting the Gordian knot: it is known as that the person who will manage to untie this node will acquerra the empire of Asia. Alexandre, of a blow of his sword, slices the famous node), and that whereas the situation is not completely without risk on its backs.

Indeed at the time of the winter -334 Darius gives the command of its fleet to Memnon of Rhodos. This one plans to carry the war to Macedonia while unloading in Greece (one speaks about the Eubée) and by organizing a general revolt. The feeling anti-Macedonian remains long-lived in many cities. The idea of a war of revenge against the Persian S, compared to the medic Wars, idea developed by Alexandre and his partisans in Greece does not make acceptable to their adversaries hegemony Macedonian. Let us not forget that Greek soldiers fight in the two camps. Memnon takes again Chios, which is delivered to him by the oligarchical party (this political tendency will be overall always hostile in Alexandre in the Greek cities contrary to the democratic party) then it restores the Tyran Aristonicos with Méthymne and puts the seat in front of Mytilène. At this point in time Memnon dies (fine of the summer -333) and that its plan is given up by Darius {{III}}. The Persian sovereign decides to take itself the head of his army against Alexandre. Autophradatès and Pharnabaze replaces Memnon with the head of the army and the fleet. Pharnabaze takes again Milet and Halicarnasse but must undoubtedly separate from its Greek mercenaries who will join, by sea, the army that Darius gathers.

Alexandre however estimates, rightly, to have made an error by laying off his fleet. This is why it charges two officers, Hégélochos and Amphotéros (the brother of Cratère) to reconstitute one of them. One needs of them little which a conflict bursts with Athens whose vessels come from the Euxine Sea are intercepted by Hégélochos. This one must deal with threat of intervention of the fleet of Athens and slackening the vessels. This episode illustrates the need for Alexandre of a victory in Asia to prevent any attempt at revolt in Greece. This is why, as for the beginning of the summer -333 it learns that Darius {{III}} walk on the Cilicie, Alexandre leaves Gordion.

D' Issos with Arbèles

While leaving Gordion, Alexandre goes initially to Ancyre and receives the tender of the Paphlagonie then that of the Cappadoce until the Halys. He pushes then towards the south, penetrates in Cilicie by the passage kept by the satrap Arsamès of the “doors cilicians” (master keys of Gulek Boghas). He makes stage with Tarse and there falls ill several weeks (undoubtedly of the continuations of a hydrocution after a bathe in the river Kydnos . However Parménion, true second of the king at the time of the beginning of forwarding, occupies the master keys which allow the passage of Cilicie the plain of Issos (collar of Karanluk-Kapu) then those which beyond control the passage towards the Syria (master keys of Merkès and Baïlan). Alexandre, once on foot, subjects, in seven days according to Arrien, the mountain populations of Cilicie and seizes at least Soles where it restores, in theory, the democracy. He learns at this time pacification from his backs with the victories of Ptolémée in Carie over the Orontobatès satrap and the fall of Halicarnasse, Myndos and the tender of Cos. But, little time after (-333), the satrap Pharnabaze, to the head of the Persian fleet subjects Ténédos and Sigeion and gets along with the king of Sparte, Agis {{III}}, which tries to raise the Greece by giving him money and some ships. The situation thus remains delicate the more so as the imminent arrival of Darius {{III}} is specified.

The sovereign achéménide settled in the plain of Issos, curiously giving up the position more favorable to his cavalry of Soches, perhaps in the will to cut Alexandre of his backs and to force it with the battle. Alexandre is in Syria but it makes half-turn, needing for the reasons called upon higher for a victory. It takes again the way of the Syrian master keys already borrowed, ventures slowly in the plain of Issos and organizes its line of battle there in front of the Persian army.

The conquest of Phénicie (winter -333)

The rout of the Perse S after the defeat of Issos (November 1st -333) is total. Darius with a few thousands of men hardly flees towards Thapsaque (town of Syria on the Euphrate) while other runaways are dispersed by the various officers of Alexandre. Many fugitive takes refuge in Phénicie then from there gain the Egypt or Cyprus. The result more the Net of the victory it is, paradoxically, the total tender of the Greek world which does not think any more of giving its support for Persians, as had just tried it the king of Sparte, Agis {{III}} by meeting Persian satraps and while trying to raise the Crête. Démosthène, with Athens, had predicted (and hoped?) the defeat of the king of Macedonia. The victory of Issos makes cease, temporarily in any case, inclinations of independence of the Greek cities.

However paradoxically the situation of Alexandre remains perilous. One of the best Persian officers, Nabarzanès was withdrawn with important forces of cavalry in Cappadoce and Paphlagonie and recruits important forces (end -333 /d ébut -332). There is thus a real risk on the backs of Alexandre and its lines of supply minor Asia. Moreover it appears clearly that Darius raises a new army. Finally the Persian fleet represents a great danger in Aegean Sea. The control of the coast phenician, being able to be used as a basis back to him, is thus essential. This is why, forsaking the continuation of Darius {{III}}, Alexandre takes the road of the south towards Arados (in the north of Phénicie) while Parménion is sent on Damas where it seizes the luggage of Darius. In same time Alexandre names one of his most energetic officers, Antigone, with the command of all the forces Macedonians present in minor Asia. This one succeeds, with the assistance of Néarque, to break the Persian counter-offensive in minor Asia in spring of -332.

The period of the empire achéménide for the Phénicien S had been one period prosperous because, in their leaving a true autonomy, the Persian kings had allowed the cities phenicians to partly take again the control of many trade route vis-a-vis their traditional adversaries: Greek. Phéniciens constituted a great part of the sailors of the Persian fleet to the Bataille of Salamine for example. But divided between them, these cities do not adopt an attitude common vis-a-vis the arrival of the Macedonians. King d' Arastos, Gérostrate, estimate that it does not have the means of resisting and especially only his city, richer of his terrestrial trade (with the Perse and the Médie especially) that of its maritime trade, no interest with a destroying seat has. The city goes as well as the cities of Marathos, Sigôn and Byblos. As for Sidon, it is subjected all the more easily as its inhabitants did not forget the reprisals of Artaxerxès {{II}} when the city had taken part in the revolt of the satraps under the reign of this prince.

The head office of Tyr (January/August -332)

With the end of the year -333, whereas Alexandre is in Sidon, of the negotiations engage with the king of Tyr, Azemilcos, which wishes to remain neutral in the conflict. Refusal of Alexandre who on the other hand wishes to offer a sacrifice in the temple of Melqart to Tyr. Refusal of Tyriens which detects the trap. To insert Alexandre as a winner in the temple it is him to give to be able on the city. As for Alexandre, it is not used for to him with nothing to hold the coast phenician if the town of Tyr, with its two ports, remains apart from its control. This is why in January -332 the long head office of Tyr (until August -332) begins. The new city is on an island (see Ancharadus) that Alexandre intends to reach by building a dam, with the remains of the old city (the continental city), of approximately 60 m length. But the difficulties increase when the dam reached of deeper water, the more so as Tyriens carry out fatal raids with their ships.

Alexandre however has an asset. By holding the other cities phenicians, it disperses the Persian fleet (beginning -332) whose crews phenicians return gradually in their home ports. The kings of Sidon, Aratos, Cyprus offer these ships to Alexandre who thus can constitute a fleet sufficient for the seat of the city (undoubtedly a hundred ships). After a raid of ten days to subject the populations of the mountains of the current Lebanon, it notes that its new fleet is ready and learns the arrival from Cléandre with a body of: 4000 mercenaries, for the majority resulting from the Peloponnese.

Attacked by ground, isolated by sea, the old city resists until August -332. The fleet of Tyr is destroyed by the ships of Alexandre at the time of a desperate counter-attack. The inhabitants defend themselves by means of ballistic missiles, of plungers and ships Brûlots. Once the turns of seat and the rams approximate of the walls, Alexandre carries out itself the attack (according to the historian Diodore of Sicily). The catch of the city gives to place to acts of a great violence so much the inhabitants are defended with eagerness. Tyriens use three-pronged forks, resembling kinds of hooks, to tear off the shields of the Macedonians, and pour extreme sand on the attackers. The latter did not forget the scenes of prisoners of the army of Alexandre precipitated top of the walls. Undoubtedly: 7000 with: 8000 inhabitants of the city are killed (according to Diodore of Sicily), and: at least 20000 are sold like slaves (part of the population of which many women and children east flee towards Carthage). Only the temple is saved in the city. The dam set up by Alexandre exists still partly nowadays; it was used in particular for the crusaders when they besieged Tyr. This success makes it possible Alexandre to finish his seizure on the whole of Phénicie.

Which objectives?

Alexandre after the catch of Tyr takes the way of the Egypt not without to have pushed back twice, in spite of the favorable opinion of Parménion, of the peace proposals more than advantageous of Darius {{III}}. Darius proposes that Alexandre marries his daughter Stateira and in dowry all the area between Europe and the Halys river gives him in minor Asia. What seems to wish Alexandre it is not an empire gréco-Macedonian overflowing largely on the Asia, idea already defended by Isocrate the Athenian rhetor, but very whole Asia, at least knowledge that have the Greek of them. The refusal of Alexandre is also explained by the fictitious character of the territorial concessions of Darius. Those constitute only the dowry of Stateira what means that in no case Darius gives up its sovereignty on the areas considered. It is this trap which wants to avoid Alexandre who requires to be looked like the sovereign ( kurios ) full and entirety of the already conquered territories. Besides it makes only apply the Greek right of the war, thus defined by Xénophon:

“It is a universal and eternal law which, in a city taken on enemies in state of war, all, and the people and the goods, belongs to the winner ”

It thus seems that the main objective of Alexandre is to replace sovereignty achéménide by sovereignty Macedonian and that he considers that all its conquests are it with final title . The nomination of satraps, as of the victory of Granique , goes in this direction. After the catch of Tyr he affirms with force that he will not be satisfied with the conquest of the Lydie and the Cilicie, which was grosso-modo the objective of Isocrate. The historians of Antiquity all are convinced that its objective is well the conquest of the whole of the territory achéménide. Admittedly it is necessary to be careful with the various sources. It at Arrien and Fifth-Curce are about the faithful report/ratio of the territorial ambitions of Alexandre or a speech historiographic built afterwards in order to give the impression in the conqueror of a long term vision and not of a conquest improvised to the liking of the victories and events. The answer to this question is problematic but it seems difficult to believe that following a possible agreement between Darius and Alexandre this last agreed to make of Euphrate its Eastern border. The fact that throughout the period Alexandre asserts, systematically, the territories which at one time or another were achéménides famous although there are at his place a will and a strong and coherent political project.

The Pharaon (autumn -332/spring -331)

On the road of Egypt it meets a strong resistance to Gaza, under the control of eunuque the Batis, and takes the city (end -332) whose garrison is massacred and population sold in slavery. Alexandre is wounded twice at the time of this seat. In seven days from Gaza it reaches then Péluse in Egypt. When Alexandre enters in Egypt in December -332, it seems to be accommodated as a liberator. It is extremely possible that they are the Egyptians themselves which required his assistance, to free them from the domination Perse which is exerted with difficulty because the Égyptiens have revolted many times on the country for two centuries. Always it is that it meets only little resistance and that it quickly extends its kingdom until the first Cataracte of the Nile.

Alexandre is made proclaim Pharaon with Memphis in -331. He sacrifices to the bull Apis - pledge of respect of the Egyptian traditions - and honors the other gods. He moves then towards the Mediterranean coast where he chooses the site of future the Alexandria which is completed only under Ptolémée {{Ier}} or Ptolémée {{II}}. The legend wants that Alexandre chose itself the plans of the new city. It goes then in the oasis of Siwa where it meets the oracle of Ammon-Zeus which confirms it like direct descendant of the god Amon. This greeting, in conformity with the Egyptian label, is very largely exploited by the propaganda of the Conqueror. This anecdote is reported thus by Plutarque:

“Some affirm that the prophet, wanting to greet it in Greek of a term of affection, had called it “my son” (/ païdion ), but that, in his barbarian pronunciation, he stumbled on the last letter and said, in substituent with naked (ν) sigma (): “wire of Zeus” (παις Διός/ feed dios ); they add that Alexandre tasted strong this lapse and that the noise was spread that it had been called “wire of Zeus” by the god. ”
(Plutarque, Parallel Lives , 46-120)

Of return to Memphis, it is officially made crown in the temple of Ptah and reorganizes the country before setting out again with the conquest of the the Middle East.

It is during its Egyptian stay that he learns the final rout from what remains Persian fleet and captures its last adversaries in Aegean Sea of which the satrap Pharnabaze. Captive fact, this one manages to escape but one of the admirals d' Alexandre, Hégélochos, brings to its Master of many prisoners who are exiled in the Egyptian city of Éléphantine. That leaves any latitude to Antipater, the regent of Macedonia to deal with always stirring up King de Sparte, Agis {{III}}. The situation in Europe worries Alexandre throughout very year -331 after the crushing of Persia with Gaugamèles. There multiply the favors in the Greek cities besides to encourage them to remain honest. It is not impossible that the fire of Persépolis, capital nun of Achéménides, aims to prove in Greece that the objective of the League of Corinth is achieved and, thus, to avoid disorders in Europe.

Alexandre leaves then Egypt in spring -331 never not to return alive there.

Towards the decisive battle with Darius (spring/be -331 - October -331)

At the time of a new passage to Tyr, it receives a delegation of Athens which obtains from the king the release of the Athenian mercenaries who had fought with the Bataille of Granique in the rows of the Persian army. Then at the end of spring/beginning of the summer -331 the Armée Macedonian is started towards the Euphrate which is crossed at the end of July to Thapsaque on a bridge of boats. The satrap Mazaios folded up himself on arrival of his adversary. The Podromoi of Alexandre locate more the army of Darius in north, also the king of Macedonia instead of going on Babylon according to its initial plan go up towards north, Nisibe, and cross the Tigre about on September 20th -331 (around Djésireh, in the current Iraq) circumventing its adversary by north. Alexandre then takes again the direction of the south with the Tiger on his line. At the end of four days of walk he learns that the Persian army, quite higher of number, awaits it Gaugamèles, not far from Arbèles (current town of Erbil in the Iraqi Kurdistan).

With the continuation of Darius

The entry in Babylon and Suse (November/December -331)

The success of the combat opens to him the road of Babylon, which goes following negotiations. We better nowadays know the three weeks between the battle and its entry in the city (at the end of October -331) thanks to a Babylonian shelf which, although deteriorated, make a clear allusion to the Bataille of Gaugamèles and with its precise chronology. The anonymous author speaks there about the escape of Darius “towards the country of Guti” what indicates the Médie. The continuation of this text indicates that the authorities of Babylon negotiate with the winner and that this one skilfully guarantees the maintenance of the religious traditions and the safeguarding of the sanctuaries. It gives the order to rebuild the sanctuary of Bel Mardouk which fell in ruin. Besides the winner of Darius maintains the majority of the dignitaries at their station (often under the control of an officer Macedonian). They are case of Maziaos, noble Persian, which on order of Darius was folded up on Babylon from which he becomes the satrap then, posts to which he is confirmed by Alexandre. This one thus avoids a long seat which could make it possible its enemy to be seized again and inaugurates its policy of rallying to its person of the aristocracy achéménide.

It enters as a winner the capital of the Persian Empire and remains there nearly one month. While Darius, in escape, tries to join together a new royal army in high the Satrapie S, Alexandre takes the direction of Suse, which goes to his turn. He had however dispatched Polyxénos in Suse in order to undoubtedly make sure of the important treasure (close to: 50000 money talents) which were there. An important part of this money (undoubtedly: 30000 talents) is sent to Antipater so that it uses it in its fight against Sparte.

Difficulties of Antipater (- 331)

The year -331 is one year difficult for Antipater, in addition to its execrable relations with Olympias, to which Alexandre entrusted the government of the Macedonia and the Greece in its absence. Apparently the dispersion of the Persian fleet, following the catch of Tyr, does not poke any more inclinations of revolt of the Greek except to Sparte where the king Agis {{III}} makes sure the contest of the pirates crétois then of the whole of the people of the Peloponnese (Élée NS, Arcadie NS and near total of the Achaïe except for Pellènè). Megalopolis and Messène is the only cities important to refuse to enter the coalition anti-Macedonian. Initially Agis is victorious of a task force Macedonian directed by Korragos and besieges Mégalopolis. The remainder of Greece however does not move and even Démosthène with Athens advises of anything to make. It is true that the skilful gestures of Alexandre, like returning Suse towards Athens the statue of Aristogiton and Harmodios or the release of the Athenian prisoners of the battle of Granique, reconcile temporarily part to him of the inhabitants of the city attic.

In Thrace, Memnon, a strategist Macedonian sent to contain a revolt, takes the party of the insurgent populations. Lastly, the Olympias queen causes difficulties as for the death of her brother Alexandre, the king of Épire, killed in a forwarding in Italy it advances claims with the throne of this country. She ensures of it finally regency for one of her grandchildren, wire of the preceding king and her daughter Cléopâtre the sister of Alexandre. Antipater reacts, according to the orders of Alexandre, while treating with Memnon to neutralize it and while directing some the near total of its forces, undoubtedly: 35000 with: 40000 men towards the Peloponnese. Acted has as for him only: 20000 men approximately and: 2000 riders. It is beaten and killed under the walls of Mégalopolis to the autumn -331. Sparte is forced to dissolve the Ligue of the Peloponnese and to enter the Ligue of Corinth. The news of the victory of Gaugamèles in Asia after the victory of Antipater over Sparte ensure with more forces sovereignty Macedonian in Greece.

The countryside in Persia and the fire of Persépolis (January/May -330)

The countryside continues in direction of the Perse itself. Alexandre takes the road, which followed the court of the Large King at the time of his peregrinations between the various capitals of the empire, which passes through the country of the Ouxien S (south-western of the current Iran). He subjects, by a striking down campaign of which it with the practice, mountain dwellers of these areas which begin to pay a tribute in horses and beasts of burden which the army needs. After having been a time stopped by the resistance of the satrap Ariobarzane to the Persian Doors, it crosses the Araxe on a bridge which it makes build and arrives in the city more the symbolic system of the Persian capacity, Persépolis.

The city is delivered to plundering, then some time after, the palates of the terrace are delivered to the flames (May -330). This fire is sometimes interpreted like volunteer, although it goes against the policy of integration to the local habits of the conqueror. Alexandre would have thus carried out a maturely reflected symbolic gesture, at the same time in direction of Persians and Greeks of the League. Another interpretation affirms that Alexandre would have caused the fire in a state of intoxication, pushed in that by a young Athenian courtesan, Thai. It is possible that Alexandre wanted by avenging the Persian destruction in Athens there, in -480, or more simply than it wished to affirm his capacity vis-a-vis a not very inclined population joining with him. At all events, Alexandre will regret thereafter this act very badly perceived by Persians but accomplished with joy by the troops Macedonians which think, well with twists, that Alexandre betrays his regret of the native land and proclamation by this fire his will not to fix itself in Asia.

The death of Darius (be -330)

Darius {{III}} during this time took refuge in Médie then, in front of the advance of Alexandre, decides to take the way of the Hyrcanie (south-eastern of the Caspian Sea). He is joined with Ecbatane by Ariobarzane, Bessos with riders originating in Bactriane and a body in approximately: 2000 Greek mercenaries . Darius sends its harem, which remains of its treasure to the Caspian doors (in the east of Teheran) which allow the entry in Hyrcanie and which appear easy to defend. Alexandre penetrates in Paratécène (the current area of Ispahan), subjects the population and sinks on Ecbatane to learn there that Darius has just fled three days earlier with approximately: 9000 men of which: 3000 riders. In Ecbatane the king of Macedonia lays off his riders Thessalie NS, lance Parménion towards Hyrcanie and Cleithos towards the Parthie (in the east of Hyrcanie). Itself launches out with fast troops to the continuation of the monarch in escape. In eleven days he traverses the road which goes from Ecbatane to Rhagæ (slightly in the south of Teheran) where it is obliged to let blow his men and horses five days. He learns by defectors that Darius is prisoner of the satraps Bessos and Barsaentès and that he moves towards Hécatompyles (current town of Chahroud). By learning this news, Alexandre entrusts his troops to Cratère and with its fastest elements goes during one day and half without practicing true pause. One day later, after a night walk, it reaches the camp of Darius that this one has just given up. The evening even Alexandre imposes on his men a new walk of night to lead to a camping again abandoned. Finally Alexandre with some riders and infantrymen assembled joined the convoy of Darius. This one died, assassinated by Bessos, Barsaentès and Satibarzane which has just fled with a few hundreds of riders (be -330). One of the satraps plotters, Bessos, tries to take the reins of the Persian capacity, under the name of Artaxerxès V , but it is too late, Alexandre holds the Persian empire firmly.

Always more in the east

Died Darius, Alexandre returns the royal honors to him and is presented as a dispenser of justice against his assassins. It that the death of Darius, to which it is foreign, is for Alexandre a good news because which fate is probable it had been able to hold for the Grand King if he had been taken alive? On the contrary it is possible maintaining for him to be generous with its family and to make bury Darius in the royal tombs of Persépolis. The satraps remained faithful to Darius are rewarded such Artabaze which receives the satrapie Bactriane. The death of Darius leads the Persian nobility to join massively in Alexandre. This collaboration of the overcome elites is necessary for him because the first demonstrations of lassitude of certain quotas oblige the king to lay off part of its troops. In Médie the riders thessaliens and allies (: 7000 men at the beginning of forwarding) are returned in their hearths. However the requirements as men increase as the army penetrates in Asia. Thus, to only keep the royal treasures, Alexandre leaves: 6000 men with Ecbatane.

The revolt of Arie (autumn -330)

Before continuing Bessos and his accomplices, Alexandre subjects the Hyrcanie and the mountain populations of the area (current mountains of the Khurāsān at the border between the Iran and the Turkménistan), the Tapouriens and the Mardes. He incorporates in his army the majority of the Greek mercenaries who were with the service of the Perse (recruited before -334 what enables him to compensate for the dismissal of part of its troops approached previously) and gathers his soldiers with Zadracarta. Part of the soldiers is returned, under the command of Parménion in which it is plausible that Alexandre has nothing any more but one limited confidence, with Ecbatane while it prepares to continue the satraps in escape. It learns with Zadracarta that those separated and that Bessos, which proclaims king under the name of Artaxerxès V , took refuge in Bactriane while Satibarzane is turned over in Arie (current area of Hérat to the west of the Afghanistan) and Barsaentès in Drangiane (southern of Afghanistan).

Alexandre seizes rather quickly the Arie, by going up the valley of Atrek, and maintains Satibarzane at his station by associating a strategist Anaxippos Macedonian to him. But, whereas it prepares to go up towards Bactriane, Satibarzane revolts (autumn -330), assassinates Anaxippos and massacre the troops Macedonians left in Arie before fleeing. Alexandre in order to maintain the order in this province founds there a city, Alexandria d' Arie (current Hérat), then moves towards the Drangiane where the Barsaentès rebel is delivered to him and put to death. In October or November -330 Satibarzane revolts again in Arie. It is killed in a confrontation with the task force launched against him by Alexandre and directed by Artabaze, Érygyos and Caranos.

Murders of Philotas and Parménion (autumn -330)

It is with the autumn of the year -330 that is held a dramatic episode resulting in the death of close relations of Alexandre on order of the king. Whereas the army remains in the capital of the Drangiane, Phrada-Prophtasia (in the south of Hérat), Philotas the son of Parménion and ordering cavalry is imprisoned and judged for plot, or to have more exactly had wind of a plot against the king and not to have made anything to denounce it. It is probable that criticisms of Philotas on the Persian ceremonial adopted more and more by the king upset this last. Philotas is considered by the assembly of the Macedonians, strongly shown by Cratère (which undoubtedly sees a means there of eliminating a rival who could make shade with his rising star) and lapidated according to the habit. As for Parménion, which is with the head of many troops in Médie, Alexandre is unaware of if it is implied in the conspiracy. In the doubt it sends officers to put it at death, which is made. One needs of them little which the troops of Médie raise in front of this odious murder.

This episode is revealing increasingly strong reserves of part of the Macedonians and entourage of the king (except notable for Héphaestion) on this epopee which sees them to be inserted more and more in Asia, far from their bases, of their country to the continuation of a goal and a dream which escapes to them. Awkwardnesses of Philotas, explaining readily that Alexandre would not have gained his victories without the assistance of his father and his, and who made fun of the claims of the king to being regarded as the son of Ammon-Zeus, as undoubtedly explain as Alexandre does not try anything to save his life. This episode shows finally that Alexandre is ready with all for the achievement of his intentions, even the murder of his closer advisers or friends. The death of Cleithos in spring -328 proves it tragically. Finally one should not lose sight of the fact that the royalty Macedonian knows frequent conflict relationship between aristocracy and monarchy and that the murder of Philotas, hipparque and ordering Companions, is a means for the king of getting rid of a too powerful officer.

The difficult pacification of the Central Asia (at the end of -330/spring -327)

From Drangiane, the army passes towards the end of -330 in Arachosie (south-western of the Afghanistan), but is delayed in its continuation of Bessos by the revolt of Satibarzane in Arie. The king founds a new city, Alexandria which corresponds to current the Kandahar, leaves a strategist named Memnon like satrap in Arachosie and goes up towards the Bactriane with the continuation of Bessos. The crossing of the mounts Paraponisades (Hindū-Kūsh), that the Greek Macedonians and the confuse apparently with the the Caucasus, is carried out in spring -329. In Bactriane, Bessos is in escape, devastating the valleys between Paraponisades and the Oxus (current Amou-Daria) in order to limit the possibilities of supply of its prosecutors. It seizes Aornos which becomes in its turn a Alexandria then city of Zariapsa or Bactres (currently Balkh). The army passes then Oxus on a made floating bridge of tents of skins filled with various dried matters and passes in Sogdiane. Noble the Spitaménès and Oxyartès then decides to deliver Bessos and inform it Alexandre. Ptolémée is in charge of this delicate capture which intervenes at the beginning of -329. Bessos is taken along to Bactres where one crosses to him, the made-to-order of the Perses, the nose and the ears then it is sent to Ecbatane and is carried out (-329).

During nearly two years Alexandre fights in Sogdiane and Bactriane against revolted satraps, against the people of the Saces and the Massagètes against which Cratère will be illustrated. Spitaménès, the satrap having delivered Bessos, revolts and massacres several garrisons Macedonians. It inflicts even one cooking military failure with officers of Alexandre on the river Polytimetos (Zeravchan in current the Ouzbékistan). The reaction of Alexandre after this defeat is extremely significant deep distress of the army since it prohibits, under penalty of death, with the survivors of this disaster to reveal reality. After having wintered (-329/-328) with Bactres, Alexandre sets out again for Sogdiane which is agitated when Spitaménès reappears in Bactriane and surprises in a ambush the garrison of Zariapsa.

It is at this beginning of year -328 that is held an episode that Alexandre deeply will regret, the murder of Cleithos. This last, sometimes presented like the foster brother of the king, is one of his more faithful companions and saves even the life at the time of the to him Bataille of Granique. At the time of a banquet often finishing in generalized drunkenness, scene of which Alexandre seems familiar, the ancient authors are unanimous on this point, Cleithos carries the exploits of Philippe {{II}} to the top of those of his/her son. This one does not support it and in an access of rage his/her friend of its hand kills. Disillusioned, Alexandre lengthily cries Cleithos and makes him make imposing funeral. However this stay in the Eastern provinces of the old Empire Achéménide strongly weighs on the entourage of the king. When Alexandre tries to impose the Persian label on the Macedonians, in particular the fact of prosterner in front of him ( proskynèse ), a protest carried by Callisthène, the nephew of Aristote and historiographer of the king, seems approved by many companions of the king. Alexandre besides yields and maintains this label only for its Asian subjects but the share which it gives to the latter in the army and the administration causes dissatisfactions in its close entourage. The plot of the pages, born from the desire of personal revenge on one on these young people surrounding and serving the king who estimated himself punished wrongfully, reveals however that among his/her companions of youth, nourished like him with the sources of Greek philosophy, some consider unbearable its new requirements and start to regard it as a tyrant. Callisthene which had scoffed the claims at Alexandre to the divinity is carried out during the repression which makes following this plot.

Imperceptible Spitaménès succumbs finally to the treason of the Massagètes which during the winter -328/-327, whereas Alexandre is with Nautaca (south-eastern of current the Bukhara), send its head to the king of Macedonia. Spring -327 is occupied destroying the last pockets of resistance, role whose Cratère discharges, and reorganizing the empire in this area. In the place of Artabaze, satrap of Bactriane rejoined for a long time with Alexandre but who is very old asks to be raised of his command, Alexandre names a Macedonian. Lastly, he marries in -327 the girl of Oxyartès, Roxane. The king bases also Alexandria Eskhate (current Khodjend), on the river Iaxartès (Syr-Daria), which marks the point more in north of its tour.

India and end of the tour

The India for the Greek Macedonians and the is a mysterious region known by the texts of Hécatée de Milet and Hérodote like those of Ctésias, doctor at the court of Artaxerxès {{II}}. These authors undoubtedly used the relation of the voyage that there made Scylax de Caryanda on order of Darius {{Ier}}. The valley of the Indus has been theoretically under the control of the empire Achéménide for this time but actually the border of the Persian capacity is limited to the Paraponisades. As for the valley of the Gange and with the plate of the Dekkan they are unknown. However relations exist since one finds in the Persian armies some elephants and of the Indian quotas.

Did Alexandre intend to intervene in India? There is hardly doubt that the original intention of the king is to restore with his profit the limits of the empire of Darius {{Ier}} and to benefit inherent commercial from them. What is sure it is that he is easily convinced, whereas he guerroie still in Sogdiane, by Taxile, one of the kinglets of the septentrional valley of Indus, to intervene against his enemy Pôros who reigns on the kingdom of Paurava in the east of the Hydaspe and who threatens the Panjâb. Alexandre is also advised by an Indian prince, Sisicottos, which after having followed the fortune of Bessos was joined the conqueror. The project of Alexandre is probably older however since in spring -329 it founds a the Alexandria-of-Caucasus (in the north of current the Kabul) what clearly illustrates its will to have a base camp for its forwarding. Finally the recall of a sailor as Néarque in -329/-328 seems to prove that at this time Alexandre considers already a maritime forwarding between India and the Persian Gulf.

Wishes T it to continue beyond Indus? With T it a world ambition? Many historians estimate that the purpose of its forwarding towards the Gange, stopped by the sedition of its soldiers on the Hyphase, was to seize the Indian commercial bases (in the same way that in -323, little before its death, it probably prepared a forwarding towards the Arab ports of the Persian Gulf) but that the main objective was well the return by the valley of Indus, then the Ocean and the Persian Gulf. Very led consequently to admit that, in the line line of its refusal of the peace proposals made by Darius {{III}} in -332 and -331, Alexandre had already a relatively precise idea of its total objectives (to become the Master of the whole of the territories which had been one achéménides day and to control the whole of the commercial main roads), even if their application in detail remained much vaguer.

The conquest of the North-West of India (be -327/be -326)

In spring -327, Alexandre starts from Bactres to the head of a considerable army, undoubtedly: 120000 people of which at least: 60000 soldiers, the remainder being made up slaves, servants but also of women and children. The Greek and Macedonian S hardly represent but half of manpower combatants. The king of Macedonia indeed recruited Asiatiques which are organized in units on the model Macedonian.

Alexandre thus passes by again the mounts Paraponisades and goes to the Alexandria-of-Caucasus (current Bagram close to Kabul). There it receives the reinforcement of the king of Taxila which offers some to him elephants of war. Then it charges Héphaestion and Perdiccas to subject the people living on southern bank of the Cophen (the river which goes down from the valley of current Kabul towards the Indus) while him deals with septentrional bank (be -327). If the conquest of southern bank proceeds without too much of encumbers, his two generals reaching Indus before him, Alexandre is confronted with the Assacènes (Açvakas) which offer a strong resistance. The catch of their strong city Aornos gives him wire with retordre. Finally it reaches Indus where Héphaestion and Perdiccas built a bridge and this one is crossed in spring -326. The army then puts back with Taxila the capital of Taxile. A little later the army shakes to fight Pôros which supervises the Hydaspe (current Jhelum one of the affluents of Indus) with a many army, strong of 200 elephants of war. Alexandre operates once more with skill because leaving Cratère with large troops, it crosses with its cavalry and its Hypaspistes the river in a timbered area approximately 150 stages upstream (approximately 30  km) in order to take Pôros with reverse. The victory is total, but it is a battle of a great violence. Bucéphale dies at the time of this battle and in his honor, Alexandre bases on his tomb the town of Bucéphalie (or Boukêphalia).

Continuing his policy of integration of the local leaders, Alexandre leaves Pôros in place, conquered by the nobility of this one, with a territory vaster than that which it had in the beginning. A revolt on its backs on behalf of Assacènes obliges it to send troops directed by Philippe and Tyriaspès while itself traverses the current Panjâb subjecting to it the various people which live there. Alexandre then thinks of crossing Hyphase (current Sutlej, the Eastern river of the valley of Indus) to reach the valley of the Gange and the external Ocean.

But with the autumn -326, on banks of this river, Alexandre must face raised shields of the Greeks and Macedonians and the king does not manage to convince them to go further. After being itself locked up three days under his tent, the Conqueror is obliged to yield with the wills of his soldiers and gives the order of the return. He makes set up twelve monumental furnace bridges for each of the twelve principal gods of Olympe, as well as a camp artificially increased until triple of his normal dimensions, marking the extreme point of his progression in the east. He makes affix an inscription: “Here Alexandre stopped”. This episode is revealing cut which was created between the king and his troops. Some of its officers, the episodes of died of Philotas and Cleithos point out it, are hostile with an increasingly personal and autocratic form of government, on the Asian model. But the soldiers as for them are, at least for the survivors of the beginning of forwarding, physically exténués. There is moreover for the soldiers a legitimate desire to re-examine their family and to enjoy the accumulated spoils.

The conquest of the valley of Indus (autumn -326/spring -325)

Alexandre then decides to subject all the valley of the Indus. He makes build a fleet, ready with the autumn -326 where he embarks with part of his army, to descend Hydaspe then the Acésine in order to join the Indus. This fleet is built with the financial contribution of noble of the court and staff of the king. It is directed by Néarque with crews primarily phenicians and Greeks following the reinforcements that Alexandre has just received. Before the departure, and in spite of the death of Cœnos one of the most popular military chiefs and one of the most faithful companions of Alexandre, an assembly of the local princes recognizes Pôrôs like sovereign, under the suzerainty of king de Macédoine and the Persian empire. Alexandre takes on board with him the archers, the Hypaspiste S and the riders of its guard however that Cratère skirts Right Bank and Héphaestion, with the essence of the army, goes down along left bank.

With the mouth of Hydaspe and Acesine of the rapids damage the fleet which must repair. Certain people submit themselves quickly but others like the Malians and the Oxydraques refuse. Towards mid-November the -326, the Conqueror subjects the Malians, but makes the fault of attacking a town of Brâhmane S, which causes a rebellion which is propagated quickly before being reduced by Peithon. During this engagement, it is rather seriously wounded, so much so that the army believes in its death. It must make open the curtains of the cabin of its ship to reassure its troops.

Alexandre, too impresses Greek culture, will never include/understand the system of Caste S Indian, and ends up joining the mouth of Indus after a violent repression campaign. The Macedonians are frightened by the phenomenon of the Marée S, quasi unknown in the Mediterranean, which does not prevent Alexandre from establishing a port, arsenals, cisterns in a port built in the south of the town of Pattala, proof that it acts for him of a territory intended to be built-in with his empire.

The difficult return (July -325/December -325)

Alexandre, for his return towards Babylon, divides his army into three bodies (July -325). Néarque with a fleet of a hundred ships: 2000 sailors and: 12000 soldiers, is charged to reopen the sea route between the Indus and the mouth of the Tigre and the Euphrate. Cratère as for him already left (in July) the valley of the Indus with half of the phalange (four taxes ), the elephants and the veterans wishing to turn over in Macedonia. It goes up by the Arachosie and the Drangiane (southern of the current Afghanistan) and must find Alexandre in Carmanie (area which corresponds to the south of the Iran towards the Détroit of Ormuz). Undoubtedly is a question it for Alexandre of showing his troops in areas subjected recently, in the vicinity also of the Bactriane where the military colonists have just revolted.

Alexandre chooses for the return the most difficult route while going along the coast of the Gédrosie (current Pakistani Balouchistan). It is a question of supporting the fleet of Néarque by establishing deposits of living. Since Patala on the Indus, it gains with: 25000 men the current area of Karachi where the people of Arabites capitulate without fighting. Then Alexandre reaches the valley of Purali of which it subjects the inhabitants, Orites. The coast being too miserable to supply the troop, Alexandre must require of the assistance in Gédrosiens of the interior of the country. Alexandre then divides his army into two bodies; that ordered by Léonnatos must follow the traditional route of the caravans, more in north, and make its junction with Alexandre with Pura, capital of Gédrosie. Alexandre with: 12000 men, whose its troops of elite and a convoy of women and children, cross Gédrosie by the desert of the Makran which skirts the littoral. However at the time when Alexandre enters the desert, Gédrosiens and Orites revolt; it thus does not obtain the promised vivres. The desert of Makran is an area particularly isolated, covered from salted marshes, cash little oasis, in any case with insufficient resources for such a manpower. Most of the convoy with the women, the children and the attachments is carried by the abrupt rise of a torrent. The troop spends two months to achieve 700  km enters the valley of Purali and Pura. Alexandre rejoins the town of Pura in December -325. He is joined there by the quota of Léonnatos which founded Alexandria of Orites meanwhile. In spite of the rain season, more: 6000 people would have died of thirst and exhaustion during this walk in the desert of Makran, the more so as part of the reserves of grain is deposited in forts at the seaside to supply the fleet. This voyage is more testing of all the forwarding of Alexandre and involves a great number of deaths by exhaustion, thirst and malnutrition; all the horses and the beasts of burden die during this tour. The more so as this suffering was useless: never Alexandre manages to establish the contact with the fleet of Néarque.

In Carmanie, Alexandre is joined by Cratère. Immediately Alexandre is confronted with recriminations of all kinds on the officers who controlled the empire in his absence. The abuses its satraps are the signs of a rather comprehensible faintness in this disturbed period and that the distance of the king supported. Two strategists of Médie, Cléandre and Sitalcès, are carried out thus later that Héracon. They are the officers who had been charged to kill Parménion.

As for the fleet, it leaves with one month delay on the initial levels, because of the winds of Mousson, on October 23rd -325. It skirts the coast of the sea of Érythrée (current sea of Oman), to rejoin Euphrate. Controlled by Néarque, with for second Onésicrite (the future writer of the Alexandropédie ), it explores the coast with meticulousness, and meets in particular whales for the first time. Confronted with several storms, which run three ships at least, Néarque is also obliged to maintain the fleet with the sea day and night because it fears the desertions. It is impossible to be supplied with ground on the coast of Gédrosie, the country of the Ichtyophages poor wretches (“fish eaters”). Moreover the deposits left by Alexandre are attacked by Orites. The only food thus comes from the sea; what takes with deprived the fleet, which suffers from the hunger. Finally afterwards: 1300 km and 80 days of navigation, Néarque arrives to Harmozia (Ormuz) opposite the headland of Macéta (current United Arab Emirates). Néarque leaves the fleet then and goes to the front of Alexandre who receives it with transport of joy, persuaded of the disappearance of his fleet. Néarque sets out again then to the mouths of the Euphrate (December -325) and rejoins Suse.

The last year of the reign

Weddings of Suse and the mutiny of Opis (winter/spring -324)

De Carmanie, Alexandre goes to the beginning of the year -324 with Pasargades with light troops while Héphaestion continues the voyage with large army along the coasts of the Perse. It is at this time that he undertakes to restore the tomb of Cyrus Large the, which had been plundered in its absence, and to punish the culprits. It also gets rid of several satraps such Baryaxès which had proclaimed Grand King or Orxinès in Perse whose fidelity was prone to guarantee. Then it arrives at Suse.

It is at this time that the famous weddings of Suse intervene. This episode is a revealing act symbolic system very solemn of the will of the king to melt as only one people the Greek Macedonians and as well as the Asian ones. Thus: 10000 of his/her companions marry the same day of the Asian women. Alexandre marries there Stateira, oldest daughter of Darius {{III}}, while Héphaestion marries one of his/her younger sisters. The marriages are done with the Persian mode, which does not fail to cause the disapproval of the Macedonians (who already saw their king linking himself with Roxane) which conclude from it that Alexandre moves away from the Greek habits to adopt a “barbarian” mentality. The conqueror also shows the will to integrate young Persians into his army. To calm the grogne Alexandre pays the debts of his soldiers and offers in a symbolic gesture of the crowns of gold to its generals.

These gestures are insufficient to prevent that a revolt of the veterans does not burst with Opis (in the north of Babylon). The element release is well this new place which is granted by Alexandre to his Asian troops. Thus the creation of a fifth hipparchie made up of Asian in the body of the Hétères it is badly felt. Also the very same day where Alexandre releases: 10000 veterans bursts the mutiny. It is asked to him to give leave to all, to undertake new conquests all alone, or with his father Amon . This questioning of its divine origin makes it insane of rage and Alexandre precipitates on the mutineers with his hypaspists. He makes carry out thirteen of the leaders and begins again, by a skilful speech where he flatters the pride of his men, the control of the situation. He withdraws himself then under his tent and does not address itself any more but to the Perses refusing to speak to the Macedonians. Those then beg the king to return their place near him to them and promise to follow it where he will want to lead them.

This theatrical reconciliation proves the skill of the king who preserves his ascending on his troops while achieving his goals since the Asian ones remain in the army. But this mutiny clarifies the distance well that there is between the projects of the king and the desires of his tired troops. In Opis the troops realize that Alexandre with good the intention “to establish for always in Asia the center of its kingdom. ”. The new companies of the king appear with the eyes of his soldiers like more and more personal and they are estimated some less and less interdependent. This resistance of the army to the policy of fusion with the Asian troops constitutes undoubtedly the most serious failure of Alexandre.

Several thousands of veterans are released and return in Macedonia, ordered by Cratère and Polyperchon. Crater is charged to replace Antipater in Macedonia, in permanent conflict with Olympias, and of which Alexandre seems at this time to be wary, while Antipater must take along to Asia of new recruits for the future projects of the king (be -324).

Ultimate intentions (be -324/spring -323)

D' Opis by the valley of the Zagros, Alexandre goes to Ecbatane. It is there, during the winter -324, which dies the companion nearest to Alexandre, Héphaïstion, probably of disease. The pain of the king is comparable by the ancient historians with that of Achille on the body of Patrocle. Alexandre returns to his companion quasi royal honors. But the royal tasks quickly take again the top and a last campaign is organized against the inhabitants of the current Louristan (south-west of the Iran) and against Ouxiens mountain dwellers that the Perses never had completely subjected.

Alexandre then goes to Babylon at spring -323. In way it receives embassies come from Greece. The Athenians in particular protest against a decree of Alexandre ordering the recall of the outlaws and against that claiming for the king the divine honors. The decree on the outlaws will be one of the pretexts to the release of the lamiaque Guerre with died of the king.

Alexandre multiplies the meetings with embassies come from the countries bordering on his empire (Libya, Cyrénaïque, Celtes of the Balkans, undoubtedly Carthaginois) without it being possible to determine with precision which are its objectives. The voyage of Néarque having shown how much the maritime communications with the oriental party of the empire were easier than the terrestrial communications, Alexandre orders the exploration of the seas bordering. Thus Héraclide it is sent to explore the Caspian Sea and three successive forwardings are sent to recognize the coasts of the Arabia. Two first, that of Archias, and that of Androsthène do not exceed the island of Tylos (current island of Bahrain). That of Hièron de Soles undoubtedly reaches the gulf of Suez. This total recognition of the coasts of the Red Sea with the mouth of the Indus will give to Alexandria a pivot role in the development of the commercial relations between the Aegean Sea, and thus the Greece, and Asia.

The historians do not agree on its last intentions. Several old authors affirm that Alexandre cherishes the project to conquer the Western basin of the the Mediterranean. It is plausible indeed that it planned to turn to the the Western Mediterranean, in particular towards Carthage. Perdiccas affirms it in front of the troops shortly after the death of the king. What is certain it is that a forwarding is considered for the 20 of the month of Dæsios (June 5th -323) that the ancient sources direct towards the south of the Libya in order to reach the Occident. Does it act if not to venture in Arabia or more probably to ensure the prosperity and the duration of its empire by the control of the surrounding seas? The question that is posed the contemporary historians is thus to include/understand if there are two distinct projects, the conquest of the Eastern Mediterranean on the one hand and the control of the coasts of the Arabia and the Red Sea on the other hand, or if it were only about one and even project with knowing to connect Alexandria of the Tiger to Alexandria in Egypt then from there continue towards Carthage and the Sicily

Previously Alexandre devotes the last weeks of his life to traverse the channels of the Euphrate and to make carry out work intended to control the floods. Then it returns to Babylon and receives, a such god, the théores (emissary) sent by the Greek cities.

The last days (June -323)

Alexandre T it has poisoned? This rumor which shows Cassandre and Iolas, the wire of Antipater (Iolas, wine waiter of the king, is the ideal suspect), is evoked by the authors of the Vulgate of Alexandre, without however that they guarantee it truly; it is disputed by Arrien and Plutarque.

Following dissensions in the policy to be led in Greece and to the conflicts with Olympias, Alexandre indeed hopes to raise Antipater of regency of Macedonia to replace it by faithful the Cratère. However this rumor, fomented by Olympias, is spread several years after the death of Alexandre, at one time when the Diadoque S tear already and where the will to discredit the potential competitors is strong. This assumption is of course unverifiable nowadays but it is more probable for the modern historians than Alexandre died of the Malaria, in his acutest form ( Plasmodium falciparum ), which more is, on an organization tired by the wounds and excesses of drink. This season of end of spring in the marshy area that the south of the current Iraq constitutes is also favourable with such a disease. More recent explanations dating from the end of the 20th century specify than Alexandre could have more probably died of the Virus of the Western Nile or a Typhoid fever.

Plutarque and Arrien wrote, according to the royal Éphémérides , the detail of the last days of the king between the 15 and the 28 of the month of Dæsios (May 27th with the June 10th). According to Plutarque, Alexandre is disturbed by the multiplication of disastrous signs. Thus, during navigation on the Euphrate, a strong gale carries the royal diadem while in Babylon, an unknown dares to sit down on the throne of Alexandre, gesture which it pays of his life. Then the festivals and the evenings of drinking bouts, to which the king is usual, begin again. Thus, the 16 and 17 Dæsios, Alexandre pass from banquets in banquets at Néarque then at a hétère thessalien of the name of Médeios of Larissa.

The 18 in the morning (May 30th -323), it is taken of a fever which will last until its death. The first days, until 22 Dæsios (June 4th), it continues to give orders and to supervise the preparations of its forwarding but, from the 23, the aggravation of its state makes unable from there. The 25 Dæsios, it loses the use of the word and cannot speak with its officers, whom it recognizes however. A terrible fever seizes him as from the night of the 25 to the 26 Dæsios. The 27, the soldiers the dead believer require to see it and ravel in front of the king, without weapons, which greets each man of a movement of head or a blinking of the eyes.

Alexandre the Large one dies the 28 Dæsios at the evening, i.e. on June 13rd -323, at the 33 years age to Babylon.

The tomb of Alexandre

The embaumé corpse of Alexandre becomes the stake of a conflict between its diadoques. One two, Perdiccas, faithful to Roxane and Alexandre {{IV}}, initially decides to repatriate it with Aigéai, the old capital of Macedonia, where the ancestors of the large conqueror rested. The body is thus placed in a first sarcophagus anthropoïde out of gold, enclosed in its turn in a second gilded coffin, a cloth crimson recovering the whole. The unit was laid out on a tank of overcome pageantry of a roof which supported an ionic peristyle. The old ones are unanimous to declare that Ptolémée {{Ier}} Soter did not hesitate to tackle the funerary procession to adapt the sarcophagus and to expose it to the devotion with Memphis. According to the pseudo Callisthène, the corpse was then transported to Alexandria between -290 and -280, using a lead trunk, by Ptolémée {{II}} which placed it in a new sarcophagus covered with gold inside a temple. Ptolémée {{IV}} Philopator finally made build a sumptuous mausoleum (Summoned it) in which it exposed the skin of Alexandre. In Pharsalia of Lucain, one learns that the monument was drawn up on a tumulus and had the shape of a surmounted marble tower of a pyramidal dome. Around small vaults intended were arranged then to receive the bodies of the kings lagides, the whole being protected by a walled enclosure which delimited the téménos. It is almost certain that was some share with the intersection of the Canopique way Summoned it, which crossed the city according to a south-western north-eastern axis since the door of the Sun to the door of the Moon, and other North-South directed main road which connected the peninsula of Lochias to the lake Maréotis.

For Strabon, the monument forms even part of the basilica. Ptolémée {{IX}}, with money court according to Antioche Grypus, made replace into 89 the gold coffin by a coffin of glass or translucent alabaster. The corpse embaumé there remains several hundred years and becomes an object of visit for a great number of politicians, Greek generals as well as Romains. Thus, if one follows Suétone ( Auguste , 1), the emperor Auguste visited the tomb and withdrew one moment the body of the sarcophagus to put to him with respect a gold crown on the head and to cover it flowers. Handling would have unfortunately damages the nose of the corpse.

The last important visit is that of the emperor Caracalla into 215. This last did not hesitate to adapt the tunic, the ring and the belt of the Macedonian, the armor, as for it, having probably already been stolen by Caligula. As of the 4th century, an earthquake and various Roman attacks having probably degraded the monument, the site of Summoned is not more known. The historians and archeologists, in spite of many research and assumptions, are unaware of its exact site still nowadays.

Finally let us note with reserve the recent and daring theory of the historian Andrew Chugg. This last in an article of History Today claims that the embaumé body of Alexandre the Large one could be in… Venice! Indeed, the mummy of Saint Marc, whose symbol is also a lion and who passes to have the first evangelized Alexandria, appears suddenly in the city in IVe century of our era, whereas all the old authors affirm that the skin of this saint had been burned towards the end of Ier century after J. - C. There would have been confusion (wanted?) at the time between the two tombs, the Christian emperor Théodose having issued illegal into 391 veneration of Alexandre the Large one. It is into 828 that two Venetian merchants, to perhaps withdraw it from the destruction incipient Islam, removed it with the complicity of the local clergy of the vault where it rested and took it along to Venice. It rests, since 1811, in a marble sarcophagus under the major furnace bridge of the Basilique Saint-Marc.

Assessment

The assessment of the work of Alexandre the Large one is complex to carry out because it is unfinished.

With the Asian people Alexandre generally reaches a statute of king-god. Thus in Egypt he is Pharaon, alive Horus. With Babylon he is king from the will of the principal god of the city, Mardouk. This is why Alexandre, who is based on the Asian traditions, seeks to be honoured like a god by all his subjects. It appears not very probable that it believed truly to be a god. Héphaistion and makes him even a subject of jokes of it. But he is convinced of the divine gasoline of his mission and thinks sincerely that he is sons of God.

In theory, Alexandre manages to unify his empire because all the territories conquered in Asia depend on the authority of the king but behind this total sovereignty hiding place a great diversity of statutes and situations like the satrapic administration. That is the direct consequence of the extraordinary speed of the conquest.

Economically, Alexandre gives the impression of a sovereign anxious to exploit conquered space and to index the richnesses of them. That is perhaps due to the influence of Aristote with which it remains a long time in contact. The forwarding of king de Macédoine is accompanied by Bématiste S, scouts charged to collect the information (topographic) before each battle, and to consign them in writing. But the forwarding of Alexandre is also and before a a whole predatory operation of plundering characterized for the benefit of only Macedonia, and, to a lesser extent of Greece. The treasures taken represent astronomical sums but the expenditure of forwardings is themselves gigantic so that with died of the king, in spite of the commercial expansion, it only remains according to Justin: 50000 talents in the cases of the State.

The character of Alexandre

Alexandre the Large one inspired by very many representations.

Painting

Alexandre and his conquests were the subjects many tables and drawings, in particular by Charles Le Brun, Jan Bruegel Old the and Jean Simon Berthélemy.

Literature

• Evocation by Plutarque in its parallel Lives of the famous men .

• It appears in historical Bibliothèque of Diodore of Sicily.
• It is also present in Abrégé philippic Stories of Trogue Pompée of Justin
• Histoire of Alexandre Large the of Fifth-Curce.
• Alexandréide of Gautier de Châtillon, about 1180.
• Valerio Manfredi, Alexandre Large the , trilogy:
• . - the son of the dream ,
• . - sands of Amon ,
• . - borders of the world .
• Roger Peyrefitte, trilogy on Alexandre the Large one, editions Albin Michel:
• . - the Youth of Alexandre , 1977,
• . - Conquests of Alexandre , 1979,
• . - Alexandre Large the , 1981;
• Mary Renault, trilogy on Alexandre the Large one, Julliard editions:
• . - fire of heaven ,
• . - the Persian child ,
• . - funerary plays ;
• David Gemmel:
• . - the Lion of Macedonia ,
• . - the black Prince .

Cinema

Alexandre was represented many times at the Cinéma.

In 1956, Robert Rossen directs Alexandre Large the ( Alexander the great ) with as actors Richard Burton, Fredric March, Danielle Darrieux or Claire Bloom.

In 1980, Theo Angelopoulos makes the film Alexandre Large the .

And finally in 2004, Oliver Stone with, Alexandre , where Colin Farrell, Angelina Jolie, Val Kilmer or Anthony Hopkins tells the epopee of the character.

Music

The song Alexander the Great , on the disc Somewhere in Time of the British group of heavy metal Iron Maiden pays homage to this historical character. The beginning of the song is introduced with the following quotation:

To note that the terms thyself and thee are words coming from the modern English being born. They were used when one wanted to designate God or a person towards whom one had a very great regard.

Appendices

Related articles

• Armed Persian Macedonian

• Armed under Darius {{III}}
• Battle with Granique | Battle of Issos | Battle of Gaugamèles | Battle of Hydaspe
• Assessment of the reign of Alexandre Large the
• Bucéphale
• Construction of the myth of Alexandre Large the
• Diadoque S
• hellenistic Time
• Wars of diadoques the
• Mosaic of Alexandre
• Kingdom indo-Greek
• Tactical soldiers of Alexandre Large the
• Succession of Alexandre Large the
• Titulature d' Alexandre the Large one as a Pharaon d' Égypte
• Cities rested by Alexandre
• Vulgate of Alexandre Large the

External bonds

• Loves of Alexandre {{III}} of Macedonia, known like “the Great” Androphile Project - world History of the male love

• representations of Alexandre in Louvre
• of Encyclopedia Chanel (230 biographical films butt historical figures).
• Alexandre Large the Articles
• Lysimachos - Articles butt Alexander the Great

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