Administration and administrators of the French royal Navy

The royal Marine knew at the 17th century a decisive evolution because of the assertion of a monarchical State extremely. This transformation was not done without sudden starts with the image of the efforts ruined of Richelieu, a few years after its death, at the time of the Fronde (1648-1653).

After the reforms of Colbert, the son continues the work of the father and the ordinance of 1689 comes to complete the work undertaken as from the years 1660.

This fixed ordinance for a long time the executives and the principles of management of the navy which will be called into question only in 1765 (ordinance of Choiseul). Consequently, the navy is entrusted to a body of civil officers called Officiers of feather. This body is arranged hierarchically since the ordinary writers to the intendants of the marine.

Among these officers, some are characterized either by their services (Bégon, Girardin de Vauvré), or by their role as regards reforms (Usson de Bonrepaus), or finally by their strategic family position (Beauharnais, Colbert of Terron).

Development of the administration executives under Louis XIII (1610-1643) and Louis XIV (1643-1715)

Henri IV (1589-1610) laid out in 1605 of 70 police chiefs of the navy. They were 50 in 1749 pennies Louis XV (1715-1774). With nearly one hundred fifty years of interval, the relative constancy of this figure could let think that at the beginning of the 17th century, the marine of the Bourbons already found an organization stable. It would be to despize of the 133 police chiefs of Louis XIII in 1620 or of the handing-over flat of manpower of the navy by the introduction of the venality of the loads under Louis XIV (hundred places of police chiefs). It would be still to forget that the police chiefs of the 18th century are placed under the orders of intendants of the navy who still do not exist at the time of Henri IV.
Actually, the administrative construction of the royal navy slow, complex and was animated. Admittedly, it is possible to note over the long life a basic tendency which, according to the expression of Michel Rod-Franceschi, corresponds to the “ royalisation ” of the institution, and that it is of course necessary to put in connection with “ the assertion of the absolute State ” (Joel Cornette). For apprehending this evolution well, let us leave to side the police chiefs and return to these intendants of the navy non-existent to the whole beginning of 17th and the so essential ones to the 18th century. Indeed, at the time of Louis XV the intendants constitute the showpiece of the administrative system of the navy, intermediaries vital between Versailles and the large wearing of war. However, the intendants are not a creation specific to the navy, which obliges to wonder why and how such a character could become the essential part of the maritime administration.

At the origin of the institution of the intendants, it with the monarchical will better to control the kingdom there, and it is under the reign of Henri II (1547-1559) that they appear in an embryonic form (captain of justice, superintendant finances recruited in the evening gown). Consequently, the function knows a long process of transformation before finding, about 1690, the completed shape of intendant of police force, justice and finances. During this evolution and concerning more precisely our subject, a fundamental stage under the reign of Louis XIII intervenes with what Bernard Barbiche calls the “system of the double commission”.

Two types of intendants emerge then: those of province (out of our matter) and those charged to assist the military chiefs for justice and logistics. One starts to include/understand by this distinction between purely territorial functions on a side, and techniques of the other, how the intendants were inserted in various royal bodies such as the army initially, the navy then.

It is thus necessary well to consider the introduction of the intendants into the navy as being one of the multiple consequences of “ the assertion of the absolute State ” with an aim of putting an end to the feudal character institution: at the beginning of the 17th century indeed, the Admiral de France does not have authority that on the coasts within the competence of the Parliament of Paris (coarsely Normandy and Picardy). This royalisation of the navy starts with the cardinal of Richelieu (1585-1642) but remains unfinished and even ruined after the brutal decline in the monarchical authority at the time of the Sling. Colbert (1619-1683) stuck as for him, to restore the royal navy and to give him modern and centralized executives.

The unifying thought and the action of Richelieu

When Richelieu arrives at the businesses (1624), the maritime situation from the political point of view is unfavourable. La Rochelle, Protestant woman, supported by the England, foments disorders what leads to the seat of the city in 1628. Moreover, the majority of the sailors are also of reformed religion (the Duquesne of Dieppe, the Gabaret of the La Rochelle). In other words, the navy escapes royal control.

The ambition of Richelieu is thus to give more means to monarchy. With this intention, it will start by unifying the loads having authority and being able on the navy. Indeed, the situation is at the very least complex: the Admiral of France must count on the prerogatives of the Admirals de Bretagne, Guyenne and Provence on the one hand, but also on those of the Général of Galères. One distinguishes several stages in the action cardinalice:

the king creates for him the load of a Grande control and general superintendence of navigation and trade of France (July, August, and October 1626). This creation makes it possible to remove the admiralty of France (January 1627). In next March, it takes the title of Large Master, chief and general superintendent of the seas, navigation and trade.
It then sticks to solve the problem arising from the existence of Admiralties of the other provinces:

Since 1626, it obtains the resignation of the Duc of Montmorency, Admiral de Guyenne, who receives as a compensation 1.200.000 books tournaments.

In 1629, it obtains the same result from the Duc of Own way, Gouverneur and Admiral de Provence, with the help of 900.000 books.

only the Brittany mark its refusal via its States. The government of Brittany, therefore Admiralty, is then withdrawn with the Duc of Vendôme (1626). Brittany thus offers the particular case to be independent. Richelieu has maritime matter authority only as a governor and not as Grand Master, chief and general superintendent of the seas, navigation and a trade.

Between 1626 and 1629, Richelieu thus concentrated all the feudal and royal loads between its hands. By considering the date of its accession to the capacity (1624), it is possible to conclude that the navy was one of its priorities. Its political will marks the assertion of the French power in naval military operations of the years 1630.

To conclude its policy, Richelieu directed its action in several directions.

As regards framing, it creates the Chefs of squadron (1626) and the Intendants of the naval armies (1627). The first have in load the military command of the operations, the seconds have the financial expenses of the squadrons. The unit is codified by the payment of March 29th, 1631. This moment is decisive since appears the distinction between the soldiers on a side (chiefs of squadron, captains), and the civil administrators of the other (intendants, police chiefs).

Richelieu was also the first to want to train young people as regards navigation by creating Sixteen gentlemen (October 1626). The following year, it founds the Gardes of the large-Master (1627-1669).

The cardinal is also interested in the development overseas and entrusts the development of the News-France to a commercial company (Company of News-France known as Compagnie of the Hundred-Associates, April 1627).

Lastly, the diplomatic bringing together with the Sweden, makes it possible France to get naval supplies which were to him lacking (Traité of Bärwald, January 13rd, 1631) like tackles, masts, guns, copper and hemp in exchange of a million books per annum.

Reforms of Colbert

Colbert becomes Secretary of State of the navy in 1669 but actually, it dealt with the businesses relative on this subject well before obtaining its official load: " My cousin, having ordered with the sior Colbert to continue to take care of all the businesses of the navy, I make you this letter to think that my intention is that you henceforth give him whole credit on all that he will write to you of my share on this matter " (Letter of Louis XIV at the Duke of Beaufort, 1665).

The influence of Colbert is thus semi-official in the years 1660. Its official accession with the direction of the maritime businesses is done in several times:

Initially, it buys the load of Secretary of State of the house of the king (February 1669).
Then, a payment of the next March 7th, allots to its load the navy, the galères, the Compagnie of the Indies, the domestic trade (" dedans") and outside (" dehors"). Of swears , it becomes Secretary of State of the navy.
Enfin, like a happy sign of the destiny, the death of the duke of Beaufort, main Grand, chief and general superintendent of the seas, navigation and trade, with the Siège of Crystallized (June 25th, 1669) makes the vacancy what opportunely makes it possible to remove it (November 12th, 1669). The heirs to the duke receive of compensation 166.000 books tournaments.

Colbert has the freehands henceforth even if the load of Admiral de France is restored (also on November 12th, 1669). Indeed, this one is entrusted to small the Count de Vermandois, two years old, wire naturalness of Louis XIV and Miss of Vallière. And when he dies in his turn (1683), she is again transmitted to a child, born from the loves with the Marquise from Montespan, the Count de Toulouse (five years).

Extremely of the support of the king, Colbert undertakes many reforms. It rests on what that Richelieu had created to transform it, in the direction of a rationalization of the structures, manpower and means. Colbert can also create when it is a question of modernizing the central administration (appearance of ministerial offices) and to recruit sailors (system of the classes).

The transformations brought relate to the redeployment of the intendants. This function, formerly attached to a squadron, is stabilized. After the installation of an intendant of Raising (1659), Colbert creates an intendance of the West (1666) intended to support the development of the arsenal which it makes build with Rochefort. But this littoral administrative organization (Atlantic on a side, the Mediterranean of the other) quickly leaves the place to a harbor organization. The intendance of Raising counted already two intendants: one in Toulon (for the navy, i.e. sailing ships), and the other in Marseilles (general intendant of the galères, for the ships with oars). Then are added to it the intendance of Rochefort (1669), of Brest (1674), of the Havre (1680) and of Dunkirk (1683). Some special intendants are created for strategic resources:

1683: the general intendant of the classes (charged with enrôlement with the sailors on the ships with the king) who becomes intendant of the classes in 1692.
1687: the intendant of wood for the navy (for naval construction).
1687: the intendant of the powders and salpetres (ammunition for artillery); removed in 1707.

The whole of these ports gathers the personnel of administration, arranged hierarchically as intendants, police chiefs and writers. Their attributions are broad: construction and maintenance of the ships, armament of the fleets, lifting of the crews, management of finances and the balances, adjudications of markets, etc

The true innovation in the work undertaken by Colbert, lies in the institution from central offices in Versailles. Vis-a-vis the increasing complexity of the businesses and with the will of the minister to manage all that had milked closely or by far with the navy, the trade and the colonies, the Secretary of State surrounded himself by ministerial offices having each one a speciality and at his head a first commis.
The first central office is created on January 1st, 1676; it is about the office of Raising entrusted to the sior of Joncoux. The second office east creates on January 1st, 1678, and placed under the direction of the sior Clairambault elder the, cousin by alliance of Colbert. The third office east creates on June 10th, 1683, little before the death of the Secretary of State of the navy (September 6th, 1683), with François d' Usson de Bonrepaus (Office of the classes).
This embryo of central administration (three offices devoted to the Mediterranean, finances and the sailors) develops quickly under the direction of the son of Colbert, the marquis de Seignelay. Four offices are created in 1687 carrying the seven total: office of the funds, office of Raising, office of the classes, office of the ports and the West, office of the consulates of Spain, Portugal and Italy, office of the colonies and office of the examination of the accounts.

The system of the classes is also the great innovation as regards maritime administration. Indeed, the navy with veils needs a great quantity of sailors to hoist or lower the veils. When the royal navy develops, it requisitions the sailors of force (the press). To avoid it, a system of the classes is imagined whose development is entrusted to François Usson de Bonrepaus. It is about a kind of military service at sea, obligatory for the littoral and river populations. Each man has to be used for turn of roles on the vessels of the king against the payment of a pay (the half is versed before the departure, the other with the return). To obtain the adhesion of the populations (which prefer to sail for the trade rather than for the royal marine), monarchy grants privileges to the sailors. The edict of September 22nd, 1673 creates the Invalides navy. It is about a mutual relief fund supplied with contributions taken on the pay. A sailor can touch a pension if it is wounded at sea. If he dies, its widow can also obtain a help.

The whole of the reforms carried out since years 1660 are codified as from the years 1680. An ordinance on the merchant navy is promulgated (August 1681) while an other, for the military navy, is established in April 1689.

The ordinance of April 25th, 1689

The ordinance of 1689 relates to the naval armies and the arsenals of marine. This text is a synthesis of all the edicts, ordinances, stops and payments former. It consists of XXIII books, themselves composed of Titles subdivided in articles.

The parts which concern the administration and the administrators of the navy are the following ones:

Book I - Of the capacity, functions and duties of the officers of the naval armies
Title IV: Of the intendant of the naval armies
Title VI: Of the general police chief following the naval armies
Title IX: Of the writer of the king on the vessels

Book IV - Of the justice of war, the sorrows and the police force on the vessels
Title III: Police force on the vessels

Book VIII - Of enrôlement, lifting, distribution, payment and reward of the officers marines, sailors and other people being useful on the vessels of Its Majesty
Title I: Enrôlement of the officers marines, sailors and sailors
Title II: Lifting of the officers marines and sailors, and their distribution on the vessels of Its Majesty
Title V: Functions of the police chiefs appointed with enrôlement of the sailors
Title VI: Writers and clerk of the classes of the sailors

Book X - Of the vivres
Title IV: Of the police chief having inspection on the vivres in the port

Book XII - Of the functions of the officers of port
Title I: Of the intendant
Title II: Ordinary police chiefs employed in an arsenal
Title IV: Of the controller
Title V: Guard-store
Title VI: Writers of the king

Book XXIII - Of the visit, conservation and cut of wood and forests of the private individuals, clean for the navy
Title I: Visit and conservation of wood and forests
Title II: Cut of wood and forests

Various ranks within the administration of the navy (1689-1765)

Writers of the marine

The writers of the navy are named by the king who delivers a patent to them. This patent is recorded by the office of the control of the marine of the place where the writer was named. The writers of the navy divide themselves into three categories: ordinary writers, general writers and principal writers.

Ordinary writers

The ordinary writers form the mass of the employees to the writings. One counts 52 in Rochefort in 1744 of them (on a total of 105 officers of feather). A writer is absent all the year (Bourjoly) and another is named made classes starting from the end of the year (Grenot).

The tasks of the writer consist in taking note of all: to count the construction materials (wood, iron, cords…), the sums of money (the expenditure, receipts), the men (sailors called with the service of the king, workmen, soldiers to be embarked…), the goods (drinks, flour, vegetables, powder…). They draw up roles which are formatted (i.e. with clean) in order to be compiled in registers. These registers make it possible to make the synthesis of the activity of an office or a detail of the port. Information is collected and transmitted to the intendant. Itself can then inform the Secretary of State of the state of progress of the work, an armament, a construction, etc It is starting from these data that the central offices of the navy make their decisions and that they reflect them, after having received the downstream of the minister, towards the ports and arsenals.

This work of writing represents a considerable mass of efforts: for one time when the data-processing safeguard and the photocopies are impossible, it is necessary all to note in double, even in exemplary triple in order to be able to control any service in the event of dysfunction or of embezzlements, or quite simply to stop the statement of expenditures at the end of the year compared to the expenditure projected at the beginning of year. This work of internal monitoring is entrusted to controllers of the navy who seldom have the rank of writer but more often that of ordinary police chief.

General writers

The general writers are very few: two only occupy this place in 1744 in Rochefort. A report of the ordinary police chief Ruis-Embito in date of 1750 appears instructive on these writers of which we know finally few things. According to him, the general writers do not fulfill the functions to which they should be assigned, being simply reduced to make the call of the workmen and to check the roles of the writers ordinaires.
After these observations, it describes what should be a their true function, namely to inform the ordinary writers of all the parts of their trade but also to oblige them with the good order and the discipline. It would be thus about a formateur.
The author adds that this rank also suffers from a lack of consideration because they are looked at “ as the reward of the old services of limited people or who by various circumstances cannot claim of another advance ”. It thus seems that the general writers must look at their position like definitively stopped within the hierarchy without upgrading capability of career.

Principal writers

On the other hand, the principal writers can aspire to the ordinary rank of police chief. There are fourteen principal writers in Rochefort in 1744 from which one dies during the year while an other becomes ordinary police chief. According to the report Of the constitution of the Feather of October 1759, the rank of principal writer, in the beginning, was not envisaged, but its utility did not seem to be any doubt: " Though the Ordinance of 1669 does not mention principal writer, it is less constant than it in existoit then and than they étoient with the head of the ordinary writers as chiefs of details under the orders of the police chiefs, but not having any other function but that to distribute work to the writers . It falloit of the chiefs of writers to direct them and answer in the absence of the police chiefs. '' One will have that good subjects for first writers and it will be even a means of exciting work and the emulation ".
The rank of principal writer “was created by an ordinance of April 4th, 1681”. This last carries out the directives of the police chief; it does not have any capacity of initiative but simply a role of allocation of the functions. This rank constitutes a footboard towards that of police chief with an aim of supporting the implication of the writers in their work. It can be a manner of justifying a hierarchy between the writers, in order to make it possible oldest to place itself favorably in the race at the rank of police chief; this playing rank, all in all, the role of “waiting room”.

Police chiefs of the marine

The police chiefs of the navy are named by the king who delivers a commission to them. Just like the writers, it must be recorded by the office of the control of the navy so that it becomes effective. The ordinary police chiefs and the general police chiefs are distinguished.

Ordinary police chiefs

The ordinary police chiefs are officers establish by the intendant with the head of one or more details of the service. Like the intendant compared to the minister, the ordinary police chief is the interface between the service for of which it with the responsibility and the intendant. He directs, coordinates, supervises, the detail with which he is charged so that the orders given by the intendant are most promptly carried out. For that, it lays out writers of the marine.
The details are varied and can even be multiple (a police chief can have the load of several details). Thus one finds details for the construction (that which treats construction of the ships and their repairs), for wood (inspection of the forests, demolition of wood, routing towards the arsenal, inventory control of wood, distribution towards the building sites), the vivres (provisioning of food, distribution aboard ship in departure), etc

To obtain the ordinary rank of police chief, it is to reach the threshold of a honourable career. Few officers actually reach this rank. Even if the sources better preserved the trace of the graded officers, that should not induce us in error. The proportion of the police chiefs is very weak on the ground. Thus for the year 1748, the ordinary police chiefs account for only 7,2% of administrative manpower in Toulon, 8,5% in Rochefort and 9,5% in Brest. In Rochefort, in 1744, the share was of approximately 10%.

General police chiefs

The general police chief “is placed under the direct orders of the intendant and the substitute in the event of absence in his capacities and functions, even those of director and judge”. He is a “assistant” of the intendant and not his “substitute”; however “the post of general police chief is a required passage to reach the management of a port”. During the XVIIe century, “the general police chiefs were brought to multiply in the navy. In 1620, they were only two…, then three in 1627 and three still in 1631”. The tendency is reversed at the next century. The edict of April 1716 establishes seventeen general police chiefs including two for the body of the galères. The ordinance of March 1762 mentions of them nothing any more but seven, and that of 1765, six.

When the activity of a port is not sufficiently important, the State does not place an intendant but simply a general police chief. Sometimes even, when the intendant dies in the service, the capacity can let spend one quarter before naming a substitute. In this case, the port is directed by the general police chief. These deadlines make it possible to make economies since an intendant is paid 12.000 books per annum against 4.200 for a general police chief. Per quarter, the economy is of 2.600 books (either approximately the equivalent of an annual amount of salary of an ordinary police chief to the high pay).
Same manner, a general police chief died in service is not inevitably replaced by an officer of equivalent rank. Thus in Toulon in 1748: the general police chief dies during the third quarters; with the fourth, it is not replaced but the manpower of the ordinary police chiefs passes from 9 to 10 people. This leads to the conclusion, that the function is independent of the rank in certain circumstances: an ordinary police chief can make function of general police chief.

Intendants of the marine

From Colbert, the intendants are named on a purely permanent basis and especially, the creation of Richelieu is supplemented by the installation of land intendants ensuring the administration of the ports and arsenals of the kingdom. Thus, at the end of the 17th century, the navy counts five intendants in Toulon, Rochefort, Brest, Le Havre and Dunkirk.

The intendant is the representative of authority of the king and is used as interface between the ground and the central offices of the ministry. Any master key by him; he is in charge with the police force, the justice and finances of his spring. The police force indicates at the same time the maintenance of law and order in the arsenal, but also the administration in general. The intendant must take care that there are no brawls, disorders or flights in the stores. “ the diversion of the goods of the State, the illicit use of matters, in a word the spoliation of the sums of money of the king …” are a true obsession. The wood warehouses doubly pose problem as well for the fire hazards as for the flights of fuel or construction material. In 1744, the intendant of Rochefort has eleven archers to face these risks. They all are per annum with the salaries of 360 pounds tournaments and twenty-two years of service separate oldest from young person. The forces availability of the intendant are of as much less considerable than they are distributed on the whole of his department in the following way: six in Rochefort, two with the La Rochelle, two then in Marennes and one with Sands of Olonne.

Concerning, the general administration, the intendant gathers all information of the various details of its arsenal and of the districts of its department, exposes them to the minister in reports/ratios, supervises the building work, deals with the hospital, manages its personnel (applications for leave, recommendations in a rank…), etc.
The intendant also has capacities of justice. Of its competence all the offenses “made inside the enclosure of the arsenal raise, that is to say on a territory depend on the navy or a building at sea or in roads”; but still “any person belonging to the marine, all the officers, soldiers and sailors of the port not exerting a function military and depend on the commander of the port”; and finally “all causes touching with the goods belonging to the marine or to the people employed by it”. As example, we have a drawn up report against the officer Graton, clerk of the classes in the island of Yeu. A police chief of the classes is dispatched there in 1765 by the Ruis-Embito intendant for “ to make the examination and checking of the Control and accountancy of Sr. Graton as well as various complaints carried against luy by different Maistres and inhabitants of the aforesaid Isle with regard to several effects which it was exposed that it avoit required them wrongfully ”. Concurrently to these legal functions, the intendant must finally deal with all that relates to finances of the port both for its provisioning its operation. “It orders the use of the funds for the purchase of the goods and supplies intended for the arsenal” just as it “controls and aims at the whole of the accounting records of its department, and balances all at the end of each year”. For each one of his attributions, the intendant delegates his powers to police chiefs who themselves are pressed on writers, but the whole of information converges towards him. The intendant is the pillar of the administrative system set up by Colbert.

Random links: