Achéménides

The Empire achéménide (Old man-Persan: Hakhāmanishiya ), is the first of the Empires Perse S to reign on most of the the Middle East. It extends then to north and the west in Asia Mineure, Thrace and on the majority of the coastal regions of the Black Sea; in the east until in Afghanistan and on part of the current Pakistan, and in the south and south-west on current the Iraq, on the Syria, the Egypt, the north of the Saudi Arabia, the Jordan, Israel, the Lebanon and until the north of the Libya.

The name “Achéménide” refers to the clan founder which releases itself towards 556 av. J. - C. from the State from Mèdes, before his suzerain; as with the great empire which results from the fusion of the two units. The empire founded by Achéménides twice threatens by the ancient Greece, conquers the Egypt and ends, conquered by Alexandre Large the, in 330 av. J. - C.

Conditions of studies

One of specificities of Achéménides is to have left only few written testimonys of their own history (with the difference of the kings Assyrie NS for example): those primarily consist of administrative files, satrapic or royal, in which were deferred the most important decisions (earthmovings, tax documents). It is rather thanks to the writings of their subjects and their enemies that the history achéménide is known, in particular by the Greek authors like Hérodote, Strabon, Ctésias, Polybe, Élien and others. In the Bible , the Book of Esdras and the Livre of Esther contain also references to the Large Kings. The old authors also wrote about Persia, in works called the Persika , works whose knowledge is limited to some fragments, the remainder having been lost. The large kings achéménides in addition left good number of royal inscriptions, sources of information on the activity of construction of the sites and on their vision of the empire. The inscriptions indeed deliver many indices which, put in prospect with the historical context for time, make it possible to include/understand the political will in the kings and their way of conceiving the exercise of the capacity.

Documentation on Achéménides important and is thus in the final analysis varied. The iconographic elements are numerous, but their analysis poses problem because they are very unequally distributed in space and time. Indeed, there exists little or not documentation written on certain areas, whereas others like the Fars, the Susiane, the Egypt, the Babylonia are very well documented. Moreover, if the documents on the reigns of Cyrus II, Artaxerxès I {{E}} and of Darius II abound, it is not the same for other times.

History

Origins of the dynasty

The founder of this dynasty would be Achéménès (in Old man-Persan: Haxāmaniš , or modern RTL F هخامنش in Persan which means “of friendly spirit”). It is about a person whose existence remains discussed (see low), chief of a Persian clan probably reigning on other Persian tribes as of Installed in the north of Iran (near the Lake Orumieh), Achéménides are then tributary of the Assyrian . Teispès would have increased the territory achéménide by conquering the kingdom of Anshan and the Fars, thus gaining the title of King d' Anshan while Assurbanipal takes Suse and that the kingdom élamite disappears temporarily.

Teispès is the first king achéménide to carry the title of King (of the city) of Anshan . Inscriptions reveal that when Teispès dies, the kingdom is shared between two of its sons, Cyrus I {{er}} ( Kurāsh or Kurāš ), sovereign of Anshan , and Ariaramnes ( Ariyāramna , " That which brought peace to the iraniens"), sovereign of Parsumaš . Their respective sons succeed to them: Cambyse I {{er}} ( Kambūjiya , “the elder one”) on the throne of Anshan, and Arsames ( Aršāma “That which has a heroic power”) on Parsumaš . These kings have only one role restricted in the area, which is then dominated by Assyrian Mèdes and the . The existence of Cyrus and its reign on Anshan is attested by a seal being marked Kurāš d' Anšan, wire of Teispès . However, an inscription gone back to 639 mentions the payment of a tribute with Assurbanipal by Kurāš de Parsumaš , which suggests that the king of Parsumaš would be same Cyrus, unifying the two crowns. This element could then synchronize the stories Persians and Assyrian. However, this interpretation is discussed, and Parsumaš, Pars and Anshan seems to have to be distinguished, the origins and methods of this subjection remain still unknown.

Darius I {{er}} is the first with speaking about Achéménès, which it presents like the ancestor of Cyrus Large the (576 av. J. - C. - † 529 av. J. - C.); what would make of him the founder of the line of the sovereigns achéménides. However, some specialists support that Achéménès is a fictitious character used by Darius usurping the Persan throne in order to legitimate its capacity. If one refers to the first sovereigns, the dynasty of the kings achéménides approximately extends from 650 av. J. - C. with 330 av. J. - C..

Sovereigns achéménides

Construction and extension of the empire

In 559 av. J. - C., Cyrus II says Cyrus the Large one succeeds his/her father Cambyse Ier on the throne of Anshan. Having also taken the succession of Arsames (of alive sound) on the crown of Parsumaš, Cyrus thus unifies the two Persian kingdoms and is thus regarded as the first true king of the Dynastie achéménide, its predecessors being still controlled to Mèdes.

Between 553 and 550, a war bursts between Mèdes and Persians at the conclusion which Cyrus II beats Astyage, king of Mèdes and seizes Ecbatane ( Hagmatāna “the city of the gatherings”, current the Hamadan). He declares on this occasion that Persians, “formerly slaves of Mèdes, became their Masters”. Cyrus leaves the safe life to Astyage, undertakes to act like its legitimate successor. According to Ctésias and Xénophon, he marries Amytis, girl of Astyage. Ecbatane remains one of the regular residences of the Large Kings, because it has an unquestionable strategic importance for which wants to control the Central Asia.

The catch of Médie by Persians is then an important upheaval, on a Middle East scale. The fact that Cyrus is presented in the form of a heir to Astyage results it in running up against the powers close to Lydie and Babylon. Crésus, king de Lydie, and brother-in-law of Astyage, “anxious of the ruin of the empire of Astyage and concerned of the increase in the businesses of Persians” attacks Cyrus in 547 - 546. But Persians counter-attack and continue Crésus to its capital, Sardes, which falls quickly to the hands from Cyrus. Crésus is constituted captive, then will receive finally a town of Médie whose incomes will make it live.

Starting from 546, Cyrus sets out again of Asia Mineure without to have subjected the Ionian and wind cities. Indeed, the king undertakes a new campaign, because Babylon, Sacie, Bactriane and Egypt are menaçantes. This period is known little about, but it seems that Cyrus takes Babylon in 539, then subjects Bactriens and Saces in 540. It is as possible as it either at that time as Cyrus conquers Parthie, Drangiane, Arie, Chorasmie, Bactriane, Sogdiane, Gandhara, Scythie, Sattagydie, Arachosie, and Makran. Darius at the beginning of its reign, presents these countries like asset indeed.

Politically skilful, Cyrus II is posed in " sauveur" of a nation which was in good terms with Mèdes to which it had lent allegiance. The general policy of Achéménides falls under the continuity of those of the Babylonians and the Assyrie NS. The populations are encouraged to move and to mix, in order to dilute any nationalist will. This measurement aims at pacifying the relations between the people, and the time achéménide remains known for its relative calm in comparison with other periods of the history of the Central Asia.

After the catch of Babylon, Cyrus allows the Judéens exiled to return to Jerusalem, giving instruction on its subjects to facilitate this return. It also orders the rebuilding of the Temple of Jerusalem. It conquers then the Transeuphratène, and subjects Arabic of Mésopotamie. Cyprus goes itself thereafter. On the other hand, one knows practically nothing the relations that maintained at that time - - - the empire with other areas the country of Ebir Nāri (Syria, Phénicie, Palestine).

After Cyrus, his/her son Cambyse II conquers Egypt in 525 - 522. It is then a question of maintaining the power of the empire and of extending the conquests towards only the other power which still counts in the area. After the countryside of Egypt, Cambyse takes again on its account the ambitions of the Pharaons there having preceded. It thus subjects the kingdoms of Libya, Cyrénaïque and Nubie. During its stay in Egypt, Cambyse seems to be taken of madness, as leave it think the acts which it makes at that time: he massacres Persians of high distinction, violates old burials, makes fun of statues in the Egyptian temples. The attack without preparations of the Ethiopia and the oasis of Ammon, which is balanced then by failures, would be also to put on the account of this insanity. Contradicting the thesis explaining the behavior of Cambyse against its entourage in Egypt by the only madness, the assumption of the political interest is also advanced. According to Briant, Cambyse took also measures of reprisals against big families which would have opposed her decisions. Recalled in Persia by a rebellion against its capacity, it leaves Egypt in 522, is wounded with the thigh in Syria and dies of Gangrène.

The Révolte is then carried out by a group of priests having lost their capacity after the conquest of Médie by Cyrus. These priests, that Hérodote names Mage S, usurp the throne in order to place there one as of their, Gautama, which claims to be the youngest brother of Cambyse II, Smerdis (or Bardiya ), probably assassinated three years earlier. Because of the despotism of Cambyse and its long absence in Egypt, " whole people, Persians, Mèdes, and all the other nations " , recognize this usurper like their king, and this more especially as it grants to them a tax handing-over of Impôt S or Taxe S, for three years.

According to the Inscription of Behistun, Smerdis reigns seven months before being reversed in 552 av. J. - C. by a member far away from the family branch of Achéménides, Darius I {{er}} (of the Persan old man Dāryavuš , also known under Darayarahush or Darius the Large one). " mages" , although persecuted, continue to exist. The year which follows the death of Gautama, they try to reinstall a second usurper with the capacity: Vahyazdāta , which is presented in the form of wire of Cyrus. The attempt gains a transitory success then fails finally. According to Hérodote, the local Aristocratie then discusses better form of Gouvernement for the Empire. It reports that it was evoked that the Oligarchie would divide them the ones against the others and that the Démocratie would cause the reign of factions whose result would be to lead a charismatic chief to seize the power, thus causing the return to the Monarchie. Consequently, the choice is made then directly on monarchy, being acquired that the aristocrats are then in position to choose the sovereign. Darius Ier is thus selected as king: cousin of Cambyse II and Smerdis, it claims himself of Achéménès, their ancestor.

Darius continues then the expansion of the Empire. It carries out Oroitès, satrap of Sardinians, who rebelled towards 522 - 520, then wishes to extend its domination to the islands of the Aegean Sea. It conquers Samos towards 520 - 519, then walk on Europe. It passes the Bosphorus, leaves Greek troops with the mouth of the the Danube (quoted of the Hellespont and Propontide) and goes towards the Thrace. This one revêt indeed a great importance for Persians, because the province is rich in strategic products: wood necessary to naval constructions and noble metals.

The crumbling of the Persian capacity

Fall of the empire

Ochos assembles on the throne under the name of Artaxerxès III (-358 - -338). At the beginning of its reign, Artaxerxès III must face disorders: engagements oppose the allies of Athens to Persians in minor Asia, of the revolts take place in Phénicie and with Cyprus between 351 and 345. The Persian army also undergoes a new failure in Egypt into 351. In -343 Artaxerxès III beats Nectanébo II and reconquers Egypt, which becomes a Persian satrapie once again. In Greece, Macedonia starts to face the Persian empire on its Western face. In -338, Philippe II of Macedonia unifies certain Greek States, the others which are opposed to Philippe II count on the assistance of the Large King. The exact relations are little known, but Briant says that the “court Grand King was informed of the operations of Philippe II”. In this same year 338, Artaxerxès III is poisoned by its minister, the eunuque Egyptian Bagoas. It is known as that “By this murder, Bagoas destroys the Persian Empire”.

Arsès succeeds Artaxerxès III under the name of Artaxerxès IV, and is also poisoned by Bagoas two years afterwards. Bagoas would have killed not only all the children of Arsès, but also several other princes local, undoubtedly of the satraps. Bagoas then places on the throne Darius III (-336 - -330), a cousin of Artaxerxès III. For the Macedonians, Bagoas would have carried one of his/her friends slaves to the capacity under the name of Darius III. For Persians, Darius was carried to the capacity because it showed an exceptional courage at the time of a singular duel against Cadusiens. The accession with the throne of Darius III is surrounded by violences, and of uncertainties remain on the access terms with the throne. Briant reports that Darius III was a member of the “stock royal”, presented like a warrior of elite and supported by most of the aristocracy and army.

Darius III, although before satrap of Arménie, does not have any imperial experience. Nevertheless, it proves its courage the first year of its reign of emperor by forcing Bagoas personally to swallow a Poison. In -334, whereas Darius has just succeeded in Re-subjecting Egypt, Alexandre attacks in Asia Mineure. In answer to the aggression Macedonian, the satraps of the west mobilize themselves and come to the meeting from the invader. Darius III and several of its satraps call upon Greek mercenaries to reinforce its armies. There remains of many interrogations on the role of the Greek mercenaries in the decline of the Persian military power according to the accounts of the various sources. The Persian army essuie then a first defeat with the Granique vis-a-vis the troops Macedonians aguerries with the battle. Follow the defeats with the battles of Issos (-332), of Gaugamèles and Babylon (-331). The populations conquered by the Macedonians appear rather relieved of the release of the Persian yoke according to various authors. Pushing always further, Alexandre walks then on Suse which capitulates and restores a vast treasure. The conqueror moves then towards the east in direction of Persépolis which goes to the beginning of -330. Darius finds then refuge with Ecbatane and gathers an army around him. De Persépolis, Alexandre goes then towards Pasargades a little more to north, where it treats with respect fall it from Cyrus II. It moves then towards Ecbatane. In way, satraps of Darius III go to Alexandre in front of the unfavourable power struggles. During the escape of Darius III, the satraps closest to the king seem to have organized a plot around its person. Darius III is assassinated by several of its satraps, who go to Alexandre or turn over in their province to be made proclaim king and “Satrapie S” by the Greeks. Covering surfaces whose extent is very variable, the organization of the satrapies takes again the preexistent structures partly, partially letting remain the old fields of local authorities (princes, dynastes).

Heritage of the Indo-Iranian time, the imperial company feudal is based on a personal honesty between the king and each one of his subjects. In the immediate entourage of the king the nobility is forming the court. Authorities of the empire, which they are administrative or soldiers are called “vassal” or “following”. Their honesty was rewarded liberally by the king, whereas their disloyalty was very severely punished. The very whole company was subjugated to the king, who itself is fixed with Ahura Mazda. The fact that classes or castes existed in a very institutionalized way cannot be proven. However, Pasargades and Persépolis really do not function like administrative seats, but rather like towns of pageantry.

Satrapies

The organization of the empire in satrapies is present as of Cyrus. The local authorities having remained partly keep authority on their fields, separated from/to each other.

The ideological strategy developed by Cyrus and Cambyse, taken again then by their successors, indeed aims at sitting the domination on an ideology calling upon collaboration with the local structures of authority. The conquerors thus seek to seem more protecting the traditions and sanctuaries that like upsetting. The local elites are thus associated with the good walk of the new empire.

The satrapies are controlled by the satrap S, named by the king without time limit. As their title means it, the satraps are “guards of the kingdom” and not of the tributary kings. However, they are directly responsible with respect to the king by representing it in the provinces. Their attributions are vast: they are responsible for the collection of the tribute and the taxes, the justice and the supervision of the saving in their province. They have also the capacity to negotiate with the neighboring states and to make the war. The satraps are generally selected among the Persian nobility and mède, even among royal princes. Hystapes, father of Darius, were satrap of Parthie, Masistès, brother of Xerxès, were satrap of Bactrie. The satraps themselves undergo inspections on behalf of the inspectors royal, called the “eyes” or the “ears of the king”. These inspectors travel in all the empire, accompanied by sufficient troops in the event of immediate action necessary. They make visits not announced in order to inspect the administration of the satraps or other members of the royal administration and report what they see directly with the king. Comparable with the capacity of a king, the capacity of the satraps is exerted on a smaller scale. However, it is noted that progressively, certain satraps showed disobedience to the royal capacity, behaving like true kings. With time, the capacity within the empire achéménide indeed moved towards the satraps.

The reforms of Darius make it possible to reorganize the provincial administration. Indeed, to the beginning of the reign of Darius, the division of the empire in satrapies is given by the Inscription of Behistun, where 23 countries are enumerated: Persian, Élam, Babylonia, Assyrie, Arabia, Egypt, the People of the sea, Lydie, Ionie, Médie, Arménie, Cappadoce, Parthie, Drangiane, Arie, Chorasmie, Bactriane, Sogdiane, Gandara, Scythie, Sattagydie, Arachosie and Maka. However, during the reign of Darius, of the changes took place since again names appear: Saggartie, India, Thrace, Libya and Decay. The reasons of the modifications of the borders and divisions of the satrapies are unknown. One can however suppose that the number tends to increase with time, in order to make the satrapies smaller and thus easier to control. No code of law unfortunately survived, apart from the Cylindre of Cyrus which moreover is not really one. This document, sometimes considered as the first known text dealing with the human rights, described an altruistic political vision of the company of this time:

the text establishes the assent of the subjects to sovereignty, and the peaceful resolution of the conflicts.
It prohibits slavery and the forced labor, recognizes the right to the wages, the right to work, and the property.
It guarantees the freedom of religion and conversion, circulation, and the respect of the traditions and habits.
It introduces the principle of the individual responsibility of the fault.
It devotes the respect of the enacted rights, the fight against oppression, and affirms the right to the life.

If the kings all achéménides are of the legislators, Darius is characterized particularly by the width from its reform from the legal system. The reorganization of the empire indeed supposes important installations of the laws, essential components of the law and order. All the inscriptions left by Darius underline its role of legislator thus, and bind the law of the king to the law of god. The royal legislator however attaches a certain importance to the laws and the local habits, as the example of Darius making compile the Egyptian law and granting shows it a validity to him. In the same way, the Bible mentions the efforts of the Esdras scribe to codify the Mosaic Law for the Jewish community which returns of exile. This coding is completed under Artaxerxès I {{er}}.

The legal authority is ensured by the king and “royal judges”. These royal judges are Persan, and are appointed for lives by the king, whose principle of the absolute capacity cannot thus be called into question. The role of these judges is to give justice and to interpret the ancient laws. Hérodote thus describes the principles which they must follow in any circumstance: attentive examination of the facts, then, examination of the crime taking into consideration preceding action of marked (this type of judgment is to be compared with the design zoroastrienne judgment after death).

Achéménides attach a great importance to justice: the Greek authors report the setting to dead corrupted judges. The punishments and judgments are cruel, like all those applied to the Middle East at that time (Execution, crucifixion, empalement, mutilation, banishment, etc)

Economy

Monetary system

Darius Ier seems to be the first king achéménide to strike his currency. But the currency, by conveying a representation of a king in warlike posture, has more one ideological function that economic. The exchanges are also done out of solid silver. Darius works thereafter to impose the adoption of a ponderal standard in all the state achéménide, which is mainly used to ensure equity in the weighings of the tributes. The unification of the monetary system then makes it possible to facilitate the trade and bankings.

The new monetary standard is the daric ( dareikos in Greek), made of very pure gold (23,25 Carat S) and weighing approximately 8,34 grams. : 3000 dariques forms a talent , which is the largest unit of weight and monetarist. The striking of the gold coins is a prerogative of the king. There exist also silver coins (pure to 90 %) called shekels or sicles ( síglos in Greek), weighing approximately 5,56 grams. Twenty shekels have the value of darique. The copper and silver coins can be struck occasionally by the satraps.

The transition towards this monetary system is also attested by the shelves found to Persépolis. During the first years of the reign of Darius, the wages are paid in kind; during the following decades, the payments in currency strongly increase, so that the monetary system is completely established at the end of the reign of Xerxès I {{er}}. However, the trade with the other countries remains rather based on exchanges in kind, the Persian currency plays especially a part in the trade with the Greek provinces.

However, this reform of the monetary system only remains partial, because the kings achéménides prefer thésauriser the values in their royal treasures , so that the majority of the noble metals are never transformed into coins.

Taxes and tributes

During the reign of Cyrus and Cambyse, the Persan kings received gifts on behalf of the conquered countries. Starting from the reign of Darius, all the tax districts (which correspond almost to the Satrapie S) must pay a fixed tribute, whose amount are defined in money and gold weight, added with goods in kind according to the economic resources of the district (wood, horses, grain, etc). The appearance of this tax is explained by the fact why in order to conclude its reform of the empire, Darius needs to equip its administration with financings resting on a new economic basis. For that, it creates and imposes a fixed tribute on each conquered country (except for the Fars, area of origin of the Persans). It is indeed a question of raising sufficient sums making it possible to finance the king and national expenditure: payment of the servants and official royal, financing of public works or pageantry (construction of the de luxe hotels, the roads and the channels for example). The administration of the treasures gives place to inventories and accountancies, reported on very many shelves in élamite, whose examination makes it possible to reconstitute the activity of the civils servant of the taxes. Shelves also mention other sources of revenue of the treasure, consisted the commercial and customs taxes perceived on the royal roads or with the doors of the cities. However, no detail is known today.

Trade and communications

The international business experiences a strong development during the period achéménide. That is due in particular to the introduction of the monetary system and a system of unified weights and measures which facilitates the payments and creates favorable conditions with the development of the exchanges. This road counts 111 stations ( stathmoi ), and of the relays of mails with horse allow to reach the territories most moved back in fifteen days. These roads were supervised by patrols, as tell it the Greek authors.

Moreover, the trade by water way is also facilitated by the boring of the ancient Suez Canal, which connects the the Mediterranean to the Red Sea. Envisaged by the Pharaon Nékao II, this channel is in fact completed by Darius I {{er}}.

In addition to the consolidation of trade route of the empire, new shopping streets are prospected: Darius also finances forwardings like that of Scylax de Caryanda, which discovers the mouths of the Indus while following the coastal road since the Persian Gulf. The Périple of Scylax de Caryanda constitutes the first data element on India known in occident.

Agriculture and irrigation

Army

See also: Comparaison enters the armies of Alexandre the Large one and Darius

At the time of Cyrus I {{er}}, all the Persan men were to fight for the king. In addition to its military strategic importance, the imperial army also plays an important political role, ensuring the maintenance of the political union of all the territories joined together under the direction of Achéménides. Its elite is consisted the body of: 10000 Immortal, from which the guards from the royal palaces result. The chief of this unit (called hazāparati ), as “a second of the king”, also ensured the command of all the imperial army. The Army was divided between infantrymen and riders, all recruited among the nobility. In the inscriptions, this army is called will kāra .

The army had permanent garrisons in all the empire, ordered by Persan officers. The garrisons were placed at strategic points: forts located on the main roads of the empire, at the borders, or even in military colonies (as with Elephantine at the border égypto-Nubian). These garrisons were made up of Persan elements, mèdes, Greeks, Chorasmie NS, and more particularly of Jews.

The satrap S are in charge of the provisioning, of maintenance, and of the financing of armed forces stationed on their administrative domain, it are not on the other hand, not in load of their military command. This one is indeed ensured by a hierarchy distinct and subjected to the royal authority.

In times of peace, the army is primarily made up of Persan and Mède S.

In time of war, this professional army was compensates by troops raised among different the people from the empire. This army “of reserve” was then divided into national units and equipped according to their national habits. Infantry and cavalry comprised each quota of archers.

The behaviors and equipment of the soldiers of the quotas described by Hérodote are extremely heteroclite, function of the people considered. They give an account of an important diversity:

* Skin garments (Ethiopian, outiens, myques, paricaniens), coated body with plaster or vermilion (Ethiopian), caps of fox and boots in skins of fawn (thraces);

* Shields of wicker (Persian) or skin (paphlagoniens, Ethiopian), helmets of wood (colchidiens) or bronze (Assyrian);

* wood Masses furnished with nails (Assyrian), axes (saces), arrowheads cut stone and spades in horn of gazelle cut as a spearhead (Ethiopian), ropes launched to immobilize the legs of the adversary and daggers (sagartiens);

* Riding mounting camels (Arab) or horses, tanks harnessing of the horses or the asses;

This heterogeneity of the troops, their armaments and equipment, and their techniques of combat, naturally raises the question of the effectiveness of the command and the difficulty of coordination of the operations to the combat. Quinte Curce even underlines that diversity is such as the king did not know all the people composing his army, and than the people were unaware of which were their allies. For Briant, if this diversity could be initially advanced to explain the Persian defeats against the Greeks and the Macedonians, it does not hold account owing to the fact that the quotas described by Hérodote have in fact never taken part in the combat, which implied especially troops of elites primarily resulting from the Iranian plate. The combatants engaged with the Thermopyles were thus Persian, immortal kissiens, and guards; those engaged with Platées were Persian, mèdes, bactriens, Indians, saces, and mycales.

Briant observes that the reviews of armies by Xerxès, lay rather within a ceremonious scope: the fascinating king act of his power through the presentation of its army. The objective was not to count there the military forces available, but for the king to take note of the diversity of its empire and to stimulate moral its troops. On the basis of the interpretation of Curce Fifth, it thus establishes a distinction between these troops of parades put in scenes in order to represent imperial space until in its most marginal people, and the troops fighting in Iranian women majority and selected. At the end of the time achéménide, the Persan soldiers were replaced more and more by Greek mercenaries.

Culture

Language

The administrative language of the empire is the Araméen, which is also used for the interregional communication. However, other languages have more limited use in space and time. The néo-élamite is thus the official language of the court in the Fars, as the found shelves with Persépolis attest it (dated between 509 and 458). Other languages have a local use, like the Egyptian, the Greek, the Lydian or the lycian.

The élamite and néo-Babylonian are employed in the royal inscriptions, like the Old man-Persan , which is a language whose writing is invented at the time of Darius I {{er}}. The latter especially uses it at representative ends, as it is the case on the Inscription of Behistun.

Life during the time achéménide

; Life at the royal court The royal court seems to be the place par excellence capacity in the empire achéménide: it is there that the king saw, with its family and her familiar. It is also there that the noble ones must reside, that are made the administrative and strategic decisions, that the satraps are convened or received. However, the documents relating to the life of the court rare and are unequally distributed.

The King achéménide moves periodically between the various royal residences (Persépolis, Suse, Ecbatane, etc), accompanied by the court and his various services. At the time of the voyages, the sovereign places in a very luxurious tent drawn up in the middle of the camp and equipped with distinctive signs. Briant admits that these tents could be counterparts of the palates of Suse and Persépolis. The life at the royal court seems regulated by very strict rules of aulic label. The King is surrounded by high officers of court, instructed to deal with various businesses (Royal Treasure, chancellery), and which return account directly to him. A large staff is also in charge of the service of the audiences. Indeed, the solicitants and begging present themselves to the door of the king. These visitors transmit their messages to guards or carriers of message, and are received in front of the king only on convocation. Any person approaching the king without to be convened is condemned to death.

The king generally takes his meals alone, by preoccupation with a safety. At the time of the banquets, the place of the guests is carefully chosen, at the same time to testify to the favors of the king and to ensure his safety. The Greek authors all are struck by the luxury and the pageantry of the banquets of court. The vivres and food of the king are transported separately, like those of the Immortal ones. Poisonings are current within the court; the King thus takes along everywhere with him of the water of Choaspes, the river which runs in Suse. Water is pulp and transported in money vases. In the same way, the function of wine waiter is very important at the court; the King drinks a wine which is reserved to him, and the wine waiter also acts as taster.

These measurements are not only used to underline the particular place of the king, they also seem to be intended to preserve its health. The doctors thus hold also an important place in the royal entourage. Close relations of the king like the wine waiters, it is easy for them to poison the monarch. These functions are thus intended for trustworthy persons. The royal doctors are mainly Greek and Egyptian.

Among the personnel of the court also the eunuques ones are, divided into two categories: those belonging to the entourage close to the king, and the others, domestic. The service of the king and the royal princesses requires a many domesticity of eunuques. Their role is to take care on the room of the king and the princesses. They are generally originating in subjected country, and their statute is close to that of slaves, even if their intimacy with the king confers a particular status to them.

Many old authors teach us that the King, and other people, practice polygamy and have many concubines. Royal princesses, and all the women in general, have particular apartments. Concubines resident in a “house of the women” after having spent one night with the Large King, and remain near him. The royal princesses have a greater autonomy and travel, as the shelves of Persépolis attest it. They also manage their grounds, their servants, even their workshops.

Hunting is surely the favorite leisure of the kings. It indeed has the advantage of constituting a very good physical preparation for the noble young person, and an event during which he can show his courage, its skill and its power (the first feature is reserved to him). Hunting is practiced in the pairidaeza , parks enclosed of great extent: the indeed meaning word “having a fence on all the sides”. These gardens are at the same time places of relaxation and approval, arranged by horticulturists, and immense hunting preserves. The techniques of hunting are varied: with foot, horse, in tank; using the sword, the arc, the javelin, or the net. A letter addressed by darius to Gadatas, which transplants fruits between the Asian Euphrate and coasts, made state of the interest of the large king for the horticulture.

; Life out of the royal court

Taking into account the nature of the documents of the time, the daily newspaper of the subjects of the empire is even less well-known than that of the courtiers: if the plans of the royal palaces are well-known, those of the particular houses of the time is not it apart from those of Babylon achéménide. The walls consist of raw clay bricks adjusted with a mortar of clay and straw. The insulation of the low mural parts is carried out with bitumen. The houses achéménides seem to be built around a court giving on a gantry, perhaps on one or two floors.

Hérodote also observes that no prayer or offering can be made without the presence of a Mage. Traditionally responsible for ritual and religious services, the magi are not associated with a particular religion. Moreover, their function of priest is transmitted by heredity.

The reign of Darius I {{er}} sees the religion becoming particularly related to the monarchical ideology. The multiple testimonys left by Darius then his/her son Xerxès I {{er}} on the inscriptions and royal reliefs of Behistun, Persépolis, or Suse, attest of a constant worry to legitimate the royal capacity and the succession of Darius by the will of Ahura Mazda. Persépolis thus expresses the image of a sovereign and unlimited royal capacity, the king ensuring the unit of the world by its virtues conferred by the protection of Ahuramazda.

The god, then called upon as being tallest, represents the source of the capacity and the royal radiation. One of the reliefs of the palate of the 100 columns of Persépolis describes the order of the things thus, showing from top to bottom: Ahura Mazda, the king on his throne, then several rows of soldiers supporting it. The message delivered by this relief is clear: the king holds his capacity of Ahura Mazda which protects it, and orders the army which carries its capacity.

Art

Art achéménide is an art of dignification, being used for the scale of the empire with glorifier the reigning dynasty. They thus call upon the know-how of workmen, craftsmen and architects coming from all the nations of the empire, integrate these influences and quickly propose an original art whose style is marked by the combination of elements resulting of subjugated civilizations. It is not a question of a hybridization, but rather of a fusion of the styles which create new. Persian architecture is utility, ritual, and emblematic. Present at the Middle-East before Persians, the principle of internal spaces created by supports and ceilings out of wooden evolves/moves, the room Hypostyle becomes the central element of the Palais. The contribution of the Greek techniques makes it possible Persian architecture to lead to different constructions where space has different functions: the release of vast spaces by means of high and fine columns constitutes an architectural revolution suitable for Persia. The hypostyle rooms are intended there to crowd and more only to the priests as in Greece or Egypt. Because of inclusion of the Ionie in the satrapies of the empire, the Persian Architecture achéménide is marked by a strong Ionian, particularly visible Greek influence in the rooms Hypostyle S and the gantries of the palates of Persépolis. Lydian architects and Ionian are indeed engaged on the building sites of Pasargades, then later on those of Persépolis, and Suse. They carry out the principal elements of them, and one thus finds graffiti in Greek in the careers close to Persépolis, mentioning the names of carriers chiefs. They play an important role in the blossoming of the Persian style, as much in the apparatus that in masonry. The participation of Greeks in the erection of columns and the ornament of palate in Persia is also mentioned by the charter of Suse, like by Pline Old the ^,. The palates achéménides also carry the marks of influences mésopotamiennes (in particular in the palatine formula associating two palates, one for the public sitting and the other for the private audience), Babylonian (enamelled and polychrome reliefs), Assyrian (Orthostate S decorated with low reliefs, winged man-bulls of the doors), Egyptian women (throats of the cornices overhanging the doors, gantries) ^,.

It is Cyrus which, the first, uses architecture and town planning to express the cultural diversity of the empire and to affirm the force of the central capacity. Pasargades is conceived by the king and his advisers, and work is completed by Lydian craftsmen and mésopotamiens, whose presence is attested by shelves. The loans stylistics with the Anatolian, assyro-Babylonian areas even phenicians and Egyptian women are numerous in Pasargades. The result is however not a juxtaposition of heterogeneous styles but well a new unit which falls under an imperial and dynastic program.

In order to mark its advent with the capacity, and to ensure its legitimacy the throne, Darius the Large one launches thereafter a gigantic construction, transformation and embellishment schedule with Pasargades, then in Suse, and especially in Persépolis. It carries out then more before this work of urbanization by creating Naghsh-e Rostam and undertakes work with Babylon, and Ecbatane. The inscriptions and the deposits of foundation state clearly that Darius wants to show the image of its sovereign and unlimited capacity. This monumental program will be then taken again by its successors: Persépolis remains thus in construction until the fall of the Perse empire.

The Persian architectural style is then with its apogee. The plan of Persépolis thus is rationalized and balanced: the square plan is systematized, hypostyle spaces are generalized. The columns are strictly arranged, including in the appendices of the palates. Another major innovation: the transitions from the gantries to the lateral sides are ensured by turns from angle Apadana. Large doors and various passages distribute circulation towards the major buildings.

The craftsmen who worked on these building sites were to follow to the letter consigned given by the advisers of the king. The loans with former arts of the area are then molten in a royal art which follows a precise program: to show the domination of the Large King on the conquered people (as the written proclamations or illustrated representations of Suse, Persépolis and Naghsh-e Rostam show it for example); but to as show as the Large King ensures the unit of the world while underlining his ethnic and cultural diversity under the protection of Ahura Mazda.

However, of many decorative pieces can be regarded as sculpture in the round. It is especially used for representations of mythological real animals or , often included like architectural elements in the doors and the capitals. In fact primarily bulls are represented as guards of the doors, like with the gantry of the room of the Hundred Columns. The capitals of column end in animalist transoms of protomes: bulls, Lion S, let us scratch… the animals are very stylized, without any variation.

Notwithstanding the polychrome ceramics discovery of Suse, the use of coloured paintings with Persépolis was often mésestimée because of many deteriorations which the pigments during time undergo. The description of multiple colors on many parts resulting from the majority from the palates and buildings persépolitains attests richness and omnipresence of polychrome paintings in Persépolis. It is not a question only of evidence resting on pigmentary traces persisting on objects, but of consistent evidence like agglomerates of paintings forming of grumeaux, colors having taken in mass in bowls found in multiple places of the site. These colors were used not only on the architectural elements (walls, reliefs, columns, doors, grounds, staircases, statues), but also on fabrics and other decorations. Glazed bricks, floor covering out of lime coloured with the red blood stone or gypseous green-gray, painted columns and other hangings thus avoided the interiors and outsides of the palates. The large pallet of the found colors indeed gives an idea of the polychromic richness present at the origin: black (asphalts), red (opaque red glass, vermilion, Hématite of the red blood stone), green, Egyptian, white, yellow blue (ocher or gilded). The use of vegetable pigments is evoked, but is to date not shown.

Goldsmithery of Court

Goldsmithery is a capital field of the tribute imposed on the nations subjugated by the Persian sovereigns. The reliefs of the tributaries as well as the shelves of Persépolis highlight the importance of the drainage of works of art by Persians through all their possessions.

The multiple discoveries of many parts of Vaisselle out of noble metals (gold, electrum, money) dating from the time achéménide testify to the importance to an art to pageantry to the service to sumptuary banquets at the time of pertaining to worship festivals. Direct heirs to metallurgical art to Marlik or Greek goldsmiths, let us rhytons of gold and of money are remarkable by their esthetic maturity and their technological perfection. In the same way, amphoras of money, cuts, and dishes with will goderons, vases, jewels, ornaments, weapons of pageantry, mix classicism and Syncrétisme. Following the example other Persian artistic fields, goldsmithery thus integrates multiple influences and know-how coming from all the empire, which it combines in a new clean and original Persian style royal.

However, the extreme diversity of the people which compose the empire makes difficult any precise vision of the true nature of the influence of the royal capacity on the various nations of the empire. But its structure made perhaps difficult its transformation into State-nation. This weakness makes it possible to the Macedonians to make lead their attacks on the Persian empire. Alexandre takes again on his account part of the model achéménide and is posed as a successor of Darius III, which attracts the opposition of the nobility Macedonian to him, which does not manage to organize the succession of Alexandre after his forwarding in India

Random links: