Aaliyah

A long time, to draw up the history of Christianity was a difficult company. Indeed, it was confined a long time in the Apologie for the dominant church in the geopolitical context where the candidate historian was located. Since Walter Bauer, one knows that no doctrinal unit existed in old Christianity and, since Adolf von Harnack, that the Dogme creates the Schisme and that the Hérésie and the Orthodoxie make system. Thus, the history of Christianity is a long succession of fractures but, if its composition often raised of the anachronistic justification a posteriori and - without relationship with a strict research of the restitution of facts -, the historical Méthodologie and the evolution of disciplines such as the Science of the religions makes it possible from now on to determine the vicissitudes and to clarify of them the stakes which governed its development.

Primitive church

See also the articles old Christianity and Origins of Christianity

The contemporary sources in connection with the primitive Church are very few: the Acts of the Apostles (years 80-90) want to be the history of the movement during the first years in connection with the death of Christ. They do not constitute however pertinenteset sources are not easily exploitable by the historians. The letters of saint Paul de Tarse (the Fifties), are the oldest documents of Christianity and the Evangiles, providing indirect indications on the tendencies which traverse Christianity during. The Christian first (the word did not exist besides yet) are not perceived in Palestine differently than like one of the many currents within the Judaïsme with the turning of the Christian era, of which most important are the Pharisiens, the Sadducéen S, the Zélotes and the Esséniens.

First fractures

The Acts of the Apostles and the letters of Paul de Tarse let foresee a certain number of conflicts within the first community of Jerusalem, but are hardly prolix. It is thus question of a conflict between “Hellénistes” and “Hebrews”, which is the subject of controversies between specialists.

The most important character of this time is Paul de Tarse. Under the name of Saul, this Jew originating in Tarse would have initially persecuted the disciples of Jesus and then known a spectacular conversion after having seen Christ to the way of Damas. He devotes the remainder of his existence to the conversion of the pagan , also called “Nice”, among which one can distinguish two categories: on a side the followers of worships polytheists, other, fear-God, i.e. not-Jews attracted by the Judaïsme, but which do not cross the step of the circumcision, and whose number was not negligible in the Roman Empire. The mission of Paul obliges the Christians to give an opinion vis-a-vis the mixed communities of Jews and not-Jews. The question is solved at a meeting which is held in Jerusalem about year 50 and which one sometimes calls “Concile of Jerusalem”. The result seems to have been a compromise which roughly speaking leans towards the universalism of the Christian message. Paul can in any case continue his apostolate.

Final rupture with the Judaism

In what was a long time Christian interpretation, Paul estimates clearly that the faith passes before the mosaic Loi; this assertion does not resist the historical analysis however any more. Those which share its point of view (reflected by the Gospel according to Jean Saint, dating from the end from, and which is distinguished from the synoptic Gospels by its anti-Jewish standpoint) run up at the same time against the Judaism renewed after the catch of Jerusalem (70) and against the Judeo-Christians, who will give rise to the Ébionisme, still violently attacked by Origène and Irenee at the 2nd century. Ébionites will be at the same time rejected by the Jews and the Christians.

Competition

Christianity was not the only religion seeking and finding followers at the 1st century. The modern historians of the Roman world find interest in what they call of the religions with mystery or the worships to mystery beginning at the last century of the Roman République and developing at the time of the Roman Empire. The Roman authors themselves, Tite-Live for example, tell the importation “of the foreign gods” for periods of difficulties in the Roman Empire. The religions which will have the most success are the mithraïsme and the Manichéisme. The Christians regarded the Manicheans as particularly dangerous, and holy Augustin, which had been Manichean in his youth, still devotes much energy to the end it 3rd century to fight the doctrines.

The Judaïsme received also converts and, in certain cases, prosélytait actively. The New Testament testifies to a category of people designated under the name of craignants God which one thinks of having been on the way to convert, unless they are not perhaps those of Nice which had not been subjected to the circumcision. Philon of Alexandria evokes the duty of the Jews explicitly to accommodate converts. The Judaism of the end of does not consider any more the " Nazoréens" like a tendency, and intends to dissociate itself some.

Of IIe in IVe century

The Church with the turning of the 1st century

For this period which follows the disappearance of the apostles, the apostolic Pères constitute the source. It is the beginning of the literature Patristique (90-160 a. J.C.). These texts, about canonical nature not , are concerned with instruction and of preaching.

The Christian communities take the name d'" Églises" (of the Greek “Ekklèsia” = assembled). These communities are equipped with a council, with at its head a “bishop” (of the Greek “épiskopos” = supervisor) or “presbytre” (of the Greek “presbyteros” = old). The first term will end up carrying it. It is assisted of Diacre S. the faithful ones meet, initially in particular houses, then in especially arranged houses (of which there remains a known example of the 3rd century with Doura Europos, where a part is used as meeting room and another of Baptistère).

Currents of thought of the 3rd century: Adoptianisme, Sabellianisme, Donatisme, Melécisme, Apollinarisme

Fight against the first heresies

The Christianity, whose thought is not yet firmly fixed, must very quickly face the problem of the multiplication of the gnostic sects. The Gnosticisme is a generic term indicating a series of sects, which, between 80 and 150, propagate esoteric adaptations Christianity, namely, the belief in a knowledge reserved in elected officials about the nature of the Evil and the means of escaping from it. The gnostic ones also believe that the material world is foreign with God and was created by lower powers. These beliefs are accompanied by tendencies either to asceticism, or with the vice, which reflect the both same contempts of the material world. Although the idea of redemption remains central, the redeemer is not necessarily Christ, considering their loathing of the material world. In the sects closest to Christianity, one considers that Christ divine is a pure spirit and that its incarnation is an optical illusion and an appearance (in Greek “dokèsis”, from where the name given to these doctrines: Docétisme). The redemption is reserved to the elected officials in whom resides a divine spark. One of the most popular doctrines is the Dualisme of Marcion, which distinguishes God from the Jews of the Father of Jesus, and thus rejects the allegories of the Old Testament. Another dissenting group is formed around Montanus at the 2nd century. Originating in Phrygie, Montanus affirmed that the Paraclet was expressed through him. The Montanisme will be a certain success in minor Asia.

These doctrines throw the disorder in the Christian communities and pose with the Pères of the Church the problem to face these centrifugal tendencies and to refute their doctrines. They are caught several manners there:

  • while insisting, like Ignace d' Antioche, on the role of the bishop, representative of God on the ground under the terms of the apostolic succession
  • by working out a Canon new Will, i.e. a corpus of texts making authority. One will end up agreeing on four texts: three synoptic Gospels (Matthieu, Marc and Luc) and that of Jean, firmly defended by Irenee of Lyon. The Valentiniens recognize others of them, like the Évangile according to Thomas.
  • while working out “symbol of faith”, i.e. short text, which summarizes what it is advisable to believe, and makes it possible to make the demarcation with the Hétérodoxie (Irenee and Tertullien).

Christian literature of the first centuries

Vis-a-vis competition, with the centrifugal currents, but also with pagan skepticism, Christianity develops a literature

  • Apologétique
    • vis-a-vis the Jews. Justin Martyr (first half of) written the Dialog with Triphon . A Christian reading of the Old Testament sees there the advertisement of the arrival of Christ.
    • vis-a-vis the pagan ones. Those, (for example Celse) scorn Christianity. It is again Justin Martyr, ex-philosopher pagan, who wants to show that one can reconcile the platonism with Christianity. It supports that a piece of the Revelation (seed of the Logos) is also present among pagan philosophers. Tatien is its disciple. Later, Lactance and Eusèbe de Césarée will develop the same topics.
  • against the heretics
Irenee of Lyon writes “Against the heresies”, in which it attacks gnostic (see above). He opposes to them the unit of Old and the new Will as well as an optimistic vision of the fall of Adam and Eve, repurchased by the sacrifice of Christ.

Origène posed the bases of the Christian Herméneutique while defining, the first according to Henri de Lubac, the Théorie of the four directions, and the Lectio Divina, which thereafter will be largely developed and practiced during all the Moyen-âge, especially at the 12th century, and in the beginnings of the Renaissance.

Religious policy of the Roman Emperors

Until the beginning of the 4th century, Christianity knows alternations of peace, in particular under the reign of Gallien, and persecution, in particular under the reign of Dioclétien. These persecutions mark the spirit of the Christians so much that the beginning of its reign (284) will constitute until the 6th century the beginning of the Christian era, known as the “era of the martyrs” or “Dioclétien”. In 312, arrived at the capacity, Constantin Ier adopts an attitude of tolerance that his/her colleague Licinius does not divide. After the victory of Constantin over Licinus, it posts a preference increasingly marked for Christianity. It takes material measures (gift of money, grounds, etc), but such legislative, to integrate the Christians in the structure of the empire (for example, the rise in Sunday, day of the sun, with the number of bank holidays). It intervenes in the religious quarrels, by convening councils (see below) and founds the town of Constantinople, capital Christian woman who replaces Rome, always largely pagan at that time. It takes measures against the pagan institutions, but does not remove the freedom of the worship. It will not convert that on its bed of dead (very common attitude at the time of elsewhere). If one excludes the short interlude of the emperor Julien the Apostate (361-363), who wants to return to paganism, its successors all will be roman catholics. It is under Gratien and Théodose Ier (380-395) that the Catholic church becomes really a religion of State. They promulgate initially a series of edicts against the " hérétiques" who are in disagreement with the syncretism pagano-Christian created under Constantin. Under the influence of Ambroise, bishop of Milan, Théodose prohibits any form of pagan worship (392) and imposes Catholicism.

Institutions of the Church

If, theoretically, all the bishops are on the same foot, some acquire gradually more importance because of the weight of their seat. This weight related to the place of is évêché in the administrative structure of the Roman Empire. At the top of this hierarchy five seats are which one will call the patriarchate S starting from the reign of Justinien. In Occident, the preeminence of the bishop of Rome is uncontested. At the origin, one grants however only one “primacy of honor to him”, as a holder of the seat of the Pierre apostle. It is only starting from the end of the 4th century that it becomes really important. It is called from now on “pope”. Its primacy of honor is transformed into jurisdictional primacy. The pope Leon I {{er}} will oppose gun 28 Concile of Chalcédoine (451) which makes of Constantinople the second seat of the Church. These claims of the pope will be badly accepted by the Churches of the East, especially out of doctrinal matter. In the East, the Concile of Nicée (325) recognizes two large seats: Antioche and Alexandria, like with some restrictions on Jerusalem. The Council of Constantinople (381), and especially the Council of Chalcédoine (451), grant to Constantinople the same privileges as with Rome, as well as the second place after this one. Conflicts between patriarchates will be for much in the controversies which will tear the Church.

Beside the five large seats, will constitute themselves apart from the borders of the Roman Empire, of the national Churches, " autocéphales " (Arménie, Georgia, Persia).

All the bishops belong to the same Church, which qualifies catholic , and communient in the same faith. To ensure this unit of faith, one set up a specific institution: the Council, i.e. a meeting of bishops. As from the 4th century, the emperor convenes general councils, of which some are described as oecumenical (" ground entière"). As their decisions are infallible and have a universal authority, they can be neither re-examined, nor corrected.

Seven councils are recognized like " œcuméniques" at the same time by the catholics and the orthodoxe ones: - the I {{er}} council of Nicée (325) - the I {{er}} council of Constantinople (381) - the Council of Éphèse (431) - the Council of Chalcédoine (451) - the II {{E}} council of Constantinople (553) - IIIe council of Constantinople (681) - the II {{E}} council of Nicée (787)

Christologic controversies

The first centuries of Christianity are one period of theological deepening. Certain concepts, not easily compatible with Greek rationalism, must be cleared up. These debates, which relate to the Holy Trinity, the nature of its three people, the reports/ratios which they maintain, the incarnation of Christ and the position of the Virgin Mary, are all the more violent one, whom they illustrate of the competitions between the large religious metropolises of the oriental party of the Roman Empire (Alexandria, Antioche and Constantinople) as well as competitions of people. These controversies, which are regulated during the councils, will give place to several great heresies, whose historical consequences are incalculable.

The Arianisme

At the beginning of the 4th century Arius was a priest of Alexandria which professed a strict monotheism. He did not recognize Jesus-Christ like equal to God the Father. Condemned by the bishop of Alexandria, he seeks and finds many supports. Anxious in front of the division of the Church, the emperor Constantin convenes the Ier council of Nicée (325). Composed mainly of Eastern bishops, the council condemns the theses of Arius, declaring the Son " consubstantial ( homoousios ) in Père". During following decades " Nicéen s" and " anti Nicéen s" will tear in councils, where the bishops who refuse to sign are deposited. Certain successors of Constantin will take positions clearly ariennes (Constance II, Valens. It is only under the emperor Théodose Ier that the Ier council of Constantinople (381) will slice in favor of the theses of Nicée, by adding the Consubstantialité to it Esprit and by affirming the reality of the three people.

The Macédonianisme

Macédonius, bishop of Constantinople towards 351, near of the arianism, denied the divinity of the Holy Spirit. These doctrines were condemned a long time after its death (362) by the second ecumenical council, the council of Constantinople in 381.

The Nestorianisme and the Monophysisme

This controversy is typical quarrels of schools and people who make rage of 4th at the 6th century. Nestorius, patriarch of Constantinople (421), formed with the school of Antioche, affirms the distinction between the human nature and the divine nature of Christ, refuses in Marie the title of " Theotokos " (mother of God) and in it only the mother of Christ sees. It is a position Dualiste , to which is opposed the school of Alexandria represented by Cyrille. The convocation of the Concile of Éphèse (431) must decide between them. Initially, Cyrille benefits from the absence of the partisans of Nestorius to make condemn this one. When the partisans of Nestorius arrive at Éphèse, they condemn Cyrille. The two parties intrigue near the emperor Théodose II and maintain an agitation permanent. In opposition to the theses of Nestorius, certain theologists alexandrines will pour in the opposite heresy, the Monophysisme, represented by the monk Eutychès. Shown heresy, it maintains that Christ has only one nature ( physis ). After the Incarnation, the divine nature of Christ would have absorbed her human nature. This new conflict causes the convocation of the council of Éphèse (449). Under the pressure of the emperor Théodose II, Eutychès is rehabilitated. This episode is qualified by the Leon pope of “armed robbery of Éphèse”. With died from Théodose, the pope obtains new emperor, Marcien the behavior of the Concile of Chalcédoine (451). This council will be one of most important of the history of Christianity. The participants retain the formula of only one person and two natures. This definition is disputed at once. Until the Arab conquests, the imperial policy will vary between repression with regard to its adversaries and various attempts at theological compromise: the Hénotique, the Monoénergisme or the Monothélisme. Under the emperor Justinien, the repression of the monophysites leads to the constitution of Churches non-chalcédoniennes, with a hierarchy parallel with that of the official Church: the orthodoxe Syrian Church, known as also Church jacobite in Syria, and the orthodoxe Church copte in Egypt. These two Churches include/understand the majority of the faithful ones. Beside them a Church chalcédonienne remains, known as " Melkite " (of the Syriaque melek = " roi"). The Moslem conquest will solidify this situation until our days.

Christologic controversies:

Diffusion in the Roman world

Christianity in Egypt

Saint Marc would be at the origins of the Church of Egypt. He would have undergone martyrdom in Alexandria in 62 or 68. It is in any case probable that a Christian community existed there towards 50 a. J.C. If, with its beginnings, it were certainly to be made up of Jews, many in Egypt, at the 2nd century it became Greek, after the destruction of the Jewish community of Alexandria in 115 - 117. The Christians have to face there the competition of the Gnosticisme and Manichéisme. The Orthodoxie is defended by Didascalée, a school which counted among its members of the famous writers, such as Clément of Alexandria or Origène. As in North Africa, the Church of Egypt was torn by the conflicts which followed the persecution of Dioclétien at the beginning of the 4th century. The schism is caused by the bishop Mélèce de Lycopolis, who opposes rehabilitation Christians who disavowed their faith during persecution.

After the advent of the emperor Constantin, the Church of Egypt thrives. She will play a big role in the christologic Controverses of 4th at the 6th century, thanks to the strong personality of certain bishops of Alexandria, such as Athanase or Cyrille.

Egypt is strongly marked by the Monachisme (of the Greek word monachos (= unmarried). Certain Christians take refuge with the “desert” to escape the world. Gradually, some of them, such as Antoine (251 - 356?), disciples around them gather, and form communities of semi-anchorites. Pacôme (286 - 346) founds communities of coenobite S (of the Greek koinos bios (= common life)), with a superior at their head. These monks, often fanatic, will play a great part in the fight against the paganism, of which one of the episodes most sadly famous is the murder of the philosopher Hypatie (415).

Christianity in North Africa

Although Christianity was certainly established early in North Africa (I.e. at the time Roman mainly current Tunisia and the area of Constantine in Algeria, with like arts center prestigious Carthage), we have sure information only starting from the end of the 2nd century, thanks to Tertullien and holy Cyprien, the two first Latin Pères. We thus know that the African Church of the first centuries took a big part with the life and the development of the Latin Western Christianity which according to Claude Lepelley was born in North Africa. In the middle of IIe century, the Christian communities were already very many and dynamic there. And in IVe century, will be born Saint-Augustin whose thought will have a determining influence on the Christian occident of the Middle Ages and the modern time.

The presence of step less than 71 bishops to the council of Carthage in 216 indicates that Christianity was to be established there of long time. One of the most quoted passages of Tertullien is eloquent on this subject: “ We are of yesterday, and already we filled the ground and all that is with you: cities, islands, strengthened stations, municipes, villages, camps themselves, tribes, décuries, the palate, the senate, the forum; we left you only the temples !” (Apologetic, XXXVII, 4).

In all its writings, Tertullien is placed in direct opposition with the pagan Roman culture and defends martyrdom. It is besides through the martyrs that we start to approach African Christendom: in 180, the Acts of the martyrs scillitains tell us the history of seven martyrs of the town of Scilli. Tertullien itself pays to us in the Acts of martyrdoms Perpétue and Congratulated one on the most known episodes of persecutions in North Africa.

At the time of persecutions, many Christians apostasient while sacrificing to the pagan gods to save their life. At the time of the persecution of Dèce (250), many Christians of Africa “lapsi” (i.e. apostates), wish to return within the Church. The Cyprien bishop, in favor of a reconciliation after a penitence proportional to the fault, encounters a group plus laxist. Cyprien finds an ally near the Corneille pope, then fights about it with Novatien, opposite with any reconciliation. It is the average way which carries it, and the schism of Novatien is condemned.

A Western heresy: the Pélagianisme

The doctrines diffused by Peeling (360 - 418), monk of Great Britain, which denied the need for the grace, the original sin, the damnation of the dead children without baptism, agitated especially the Western part of the Roman world. The semipelagianists as did not go far as Pélage. They denied that the grace was necessary to start to believe. Saint-Augustin was the main adversary of the pelagianism and of the semipelagianism and he wrote against these Hérésie S several of his works. In spite of their judgment with various recoveries by several councils (Carthage in 415 and 417, Antioche in 424, Éphèse in 431), the pelagianism and the semipelagianism remained until the Life century (last judgment by the Orange council, in 529.

Development apart from the Roman world

Christianity was not limited to the Mediterranean basin and its back-countries. It was spread everywhere where existed zones of Diaspora (term of Greek origin for dispersion ) Jewish, inter alia in Mésopotamie, apart from the Roman empire, where this population resided since the captivity at Babylon, city where most of the Talmud developed.

Christianity in Persia in the Empire sassanide

Christianity is spread in Persia as of the 2nd century. It encounters a national religion against it, the Mazdéisme zoroastrien. The Christians initially seem likely to give a support for the Roman Empire and are persecuted. A synod of the Persian Church in 424 issues its independence. At the end of the 5th century, the Church of Persia passes to the Nestorianisme, which makes it possible to the Christians of Persia to be distinguished from the Church of the Roman Empire.

Christianity in Arménie

The history of the beginning of Christianity in Arménie rests on legendary bases: the country would have been évangélisé by Simon, Barthélémy and Thaddée. One is on a surer ground at the 4th century. The Roman Emperor Dioclétien installs Tiridate IV (298-330) on the throne of Arménie. The king is pagan, but a preacher, Gregoire Ier the Illuminator, convinces it to make of Arménie the first officially Christian State. One now goes back this event to 314, rather than of 301. This does not remove anything with the fact that Arménie remains the first officially Christian country, since the edict of Milan (313) constitutes only one edict of tolerance. Following the division of Arménie between the Roman empire and Persia (387), most of the country, in the orbit of the Persian mazdeism, is threatened of cultural destruction. It is however at that time that the monk Mesrob Machtots creates the Armenian alphabet: the Bible is translated into Armenian. The Persian king Yazdgard II (438-457) and its successors tries to convert of force the Armenians in Mazdéisme, but without success. In addition, the Armenian Church does not want to yield with the decisions of the Concile of Chalcédoine and its chief takes the title of Catholicos (506).

Christianity in Ethiopia

Ethiopian Christianity would have occurred with the conversion of the king Ezana of Axoum by holy Frumence (or Frumentios) at the 4th century. Captured and reduced in slavery at the time of a voyage, it is released by the king and Athanase of Alexandria makes the first bishop of the country of it (between 328 and 356 (?)). The successors of Ezana would be turned over to paganism, and it is only at the end of the 5th century that Christianity is firmly established in Ethiopia. The country was undoubtedly évangélisé by missionaries monophysites: its Church is non-chalcédonienne and its chief named by the patriarch copte of Alexandria. It adopted like liturgical Langue the Guèze, the language of the kingdom of Axoum.

Christianity nestorien in the Far East

Nestorianism, conveyed along the Silk route, reached China into 635. A stele set up into 731 described the introduction of Christianity under the emperor Taizong.

The Middle Ages

The division of the Roman Empire (395) and the disappearance of the Roman Empire of Occident (476) will have for consequences the progressive distance of Christendoms Western and Eastern and the assertion quite as progressive of papacy in the Roman ex-Empire of Occident, where there does not exist any more supreme temporal authority.

In addition, the Arab invasions and the passage of most of the Eastern Christians under Moslem domination (7th century) deeply will modify the landscape of Eastern Christianity. In the areas which escape the Byzantine empire will be able to parallel to develop freely dissenting Churches (for example the Church copte in Egypt) the Churches remained chalcédoniennes. In addition during the Middle Ages various Churches Uniates will be born, i.e. recognizing the authority of Rome, but preserving their rite. In Occident, Christianity disappears almost from North Africa and the Christians of Spain are gradually reduced with a minority of Dhimmis.

The East

The fact that the denomination of many Eastern Churches comprises the orthodoxe word “ ” is a source of confusion. We will consider here only the Churches which recognize themselves and which one commonly indicates like the “orthodoxe Église” or the “Églises of the seven councils”, mainly the patriarchate of Constantinople. The history of the other Eastern Churches will be treated separately.

Emperors, patriarchs and monks in Constantinople

The Byzantines saw in their empire the image of the kingdom of heaven and in their emperor the image of the celestial sovereign. He is the “lieutenant of God”, and it is of Him that he holds his capacity (“Dei gratia”). Crowning with Holy-Sophie by the patriarch of Constantinople symbolizes this divine sanction. Even in the most manifest cases of usurpation, the patriarch it forever refused. This design has as a consequence which the emperor is the only legal sovereign of the terrestrial city. It is in the name of this design that the Byzantine emperors always savagely regarded any other Christian sovereign as their subordinate. To the 14th century, when the Empire goes towards its end, the patriarch of Constantinople recalls to the Large-duke of Moscow, which is not regarded any more as submitted to the emperor, that “single is the universal emperor”. Its position in the Church forever be clearly defined. Its person is crowned: since Constantin Ier it is “equal to the apostles” ( isapostolos ). He is not priest, but however, like the priest, he penetrates in the Holy of Holies, behind the Iconostase, and communie under the two species. The emperor makes respect the laws of the Church. When the need is felt some, it is him which convenes the ecumenical councils. In theory the patriarch, as chief of the Church, is him also the emanation of god. In practice, the emperor names the patriarch as good seems to him, even if in theory it chooses among a list which is presented to him. The selected patriarch can even be laic, like Photios Ier of Constantinople, which receives in catastrophe all the orders. During first centuries of the empire, the emperor intervenes in questions of dogma. This interventionism will culminate during the crisis iconoclast (see below). Thereafter a fragile balance between the emperor and the patriarch is established. It must in theory reign between them a harmony (such as the “Epanagogè” of Basile Ier defines it) for wellbeing of the State and the Church. The emperor can cross certain barriers morals with difficulty. One can give of it for example the fourth marriage of Leon VI, which makes scandal. The patriarch Nicolas Mystikos then refuses with the emperor the entry of Holy-Sophie. Although it forced the patriarch to abdicate, Leon will have to make penitence. During last centuries of the Empire, the sovereigns who want to approach Rome (see below) run up against the opposition of the Church. The true winners of the crisis iconoclast are the monks, who were made the champions of the images. They form a true party and do not hesitate to dispute the authority of the State. As they travel much (monks “gyrovagues”), they exert a great influence on the public opinion. By their asceticism and their contempt of the world, they constitute an ideal of life for the people and are regarded as the mediators par excellence with God, and among them, the “innocent one” or the “idiot” the most direct contact with God has. They contributed to give an aspect anti-intellectualist to Byzantine Christianity. The monks are all the more respected that the prestige of the secular clergy is low. During last centuries of Byzance, the patriarchs besides will be often recruited among the monks.

The crisis iconoclast

At the 7th century, the Iconoclasme is a reaction to the worship of the images (or " icons "). This worship appears various ways; illumination of the icon to prostration, until the conviction that the icon is acting by itself. The reasons of the crisis are not clear. One called upon inter alia the influence of the Judaism and Islam. The first iconoclasts measurements are taken in 725 by the emperor Leon III. He replaces the patriarch Germanos by an iconoclast, Anastase. Initially, there are no persecutions. The successor of Leon, the emperor Constantin V Copronyme, convenes a council which makes iconoclasme the official doctrines of the Byzantine Empire. He must face the opposition of the monks who are iconodules (in favor of the worship of the images). Under the empress Irene a reaction takes place: in 786-87, a new council reverses the tendency and restores the worship of the images. The religious hierarchy follows the imperial will. In 815, another emperor, Leon V the Armenian, returns to the iconoclasme. It must face a powerful opposition carried out by Theodore Stoudiote. As of the death of the emperor Theophilus, in 845, the worship of the images is definitively restored.

The conversion of the Slavic ones

At the 6th century, the peninsula of the Balkans is invaded by pagan tribes Slaves. The rechristianisation takes place in several stages and is accompanied by frictions with the Church of Occident.

In 862, Rostislav, prince of Large-Moravie, request with the Byzantines to send priests to him to form a local Church. The patriarch Photius sends two brothers to him: Cyrille and Méthode, originating in Thessalonique and knowing the Slavic world. Cyrille develops the first Slavic alphabet, the Glagolitique. Their mission is a success. If, at the beginning, they are supported by the pope, they run up against the opposition of the partisans of the use of the “three languages” (which do not admit that the Greek, Latin and Hebrew like liturgical languages) and especially with the hostility of the frank bishops, who do not want to see escaping the area the political influence from the Germanic one. After their death, their successors will be driven out of Large-Moravie.

The Bulgarian , enemies hereditary of the Byzantines, convert at the same time. In 866, the Bulgarian khan Boris (852 - 889) is baptized, which involves the conversion of all the Bulgarian people. Bulgaria hesitates initially between Rome and Constantinople. It is Constantinople which carries it and Bulgaria made still currently orthodoxe part of the world. The same applies to a certain number of other Slavic principalities, corresponding roughly speaking to the current Serbes. The adoption of Christianity goes hand in hand with that of Byzantine civilization. It is thus at that time that in Balkans a new border is formed: that between the orthodoxe world and the catholic world.

Another capital event is the conversion of the Russians to Christianity. The princess Olga, sister of the prince of Kiev ( Rus ) Igor had already converted in the middle of the 10th century. In 989, the prince Vladimir Ier, anxious to sit its capacity more firmly, negotiates with the Byzantines his baptism like that of its subjects and its marriage with a Byzantine princess. Russia concerns directly the patriarch of Constantinople, which indicates the métropolite of Kiev. During nearly 400 years, this one will be Greek and contribute to anchor Russia in the Byzantine sphere of influence. At the 10th century, Mieszko Ier of Poland, Géza of Hungary, his/her son, the future holy Etienne and Bořivoj Ier of Bohemia, husband of holy Ldumila and grandfather of holy Venceslas is among the first sovereigns to be converted with Christianity.

The spheres of influence of the Holy Germanic Roman Empire and of the Byzantine Empire determine, of north in the south of Europe, a religious and cultural border which always exists.

The relationship between the papacy and the Churches of the East

The history of the relationship between the papacy and the Churches of the East can be included/understood only in the context of competitions of people and seats. At the 9th century, the first serious problem turns around the nomination of the patriarch of Constantinople. The emperor Michel III deposits the patriarch Ignace, and replaces it by Photius. The pope Nicolas Ier, who sees an occasion there to intervene in the businesses of Constantinople, ends up refusing to recognize Photius. It is the “schism of Photius”. It is during this episode that is evoked for the first time the question of the “Filioque” (an addition of Charlemagne to the Symbole of Nicée-Constantinople). Although the pope and Photius were reconciled, the question remains outstanding. It is again evoked at the time of what one calls Great Schism the of the East in 1054: the papal legate Hubert de Moyenmoutier and the patriarch of Constantinople Michel Cérulaire excommunicate themselves mutually. The things take a more serious turn at the time of the Croisades, enamelled of a multitude of incidents between “Latin” and “Greeks”. They take a frankly dramatic turn at the time of the bag of Constantinople by the Crusaders in 1204, which will consume the rupture. On two occasions, with the IIe council of Lyon in 1276 and with the Council of Florence in 1439, for political reasons, Byzantine emperors recognize the primacy of the pope of Rome, but are repudiated by the hierarchy of what one can now call the orthodoxe Église.

Occident

5th at the 11th century, is born, of Ireland in Poland, and Sweden in Italy, a new civilization. Under the impulse of the Frank , this civilization constitutes a synthesis of Roman civilization and Barbarians, whose religion will be a particular form of Christianity which will become the Roman Catholicisme.

Development of papacy

Already under Damask Ier (366 - 384), the assertion of the authority of the bishop of Rome is outlined, like successor of Saint Pierre, discipline liturgy. The pope Leon I {{er}} the large one (440 - 461) will still more push in many writings the exaltation of the head office of Pierre. Vis-a-vis the emperor Anastase, the pope Gélase Ier (492 - 496) affirms in a text celebrates the primacy of the spiritual power vis-a-vis the temporal one. The popes of the Middle Ages will be inspired some to justify their claims. The reconquest of Italy by the emperor Justinien replaces nevertheless temporarily the pope in the orbit of the Empire. At the 7th century, following the invasion of the Lombards, the Byzantine empire gradually loses most of its Italian territories and papacy becomes an autonomous power in Italy. The devastations of Lombards in Italy coincide with the pontificate of Gregoire Ier the Large one. This energetic pope assumes the civil government of Rome, strengthens the authority of Rome on évêchés Italian, endeavors to maintain the relations followed with the other Churches of Occident and works with the conversion of Northern Europe.

The Irish Christianity

The Church of Ireland was founded on a dubious date at the 5th century by Saint Patrick. According to the tradition, Patrick, who was a Breton Christian (of the island of Brittany, current England), would have been taken along like slave to Ireland in his youth. After being itself escaped, it turns over to Ireland to convert the country. Irish Christianity presents very particular characters. At that time, Ireland was divided into a great number of small kingdoms, called “tuath”, which carefully converted the ones after the others. In this island with variation of world Roman, without “cities” (i.e. a Roman administrative division on which the Church copied its évêchés), the Monachisme takes a very particular importance. The Irish abbots constitute, more than the bishops, the ecclesiastical authority on a territory. Moreover, world cups Roman by the invasions, the Irishmen preserve certain old traditions reformed at Rome, differences in practice in the Calcul of the date of Easter or others which pose problem at the time of the evangelization of the continent by the Irish monks.

Cruel kingdoms

On the territory of the old Roman Empire of Occident various Germanic tribes were installed. Some were already converted with a form " arienne" Christianity. It is the case of the Vandales in , North Africa Visigoths in Spain and south of France and the Ostrogoths in Italy. They cohabit more or less harmoniously with the local catholic population. On the other hand, the Francs, which settled in the north of the Gaulle as well as the Anglo-Saxon which invaded the Brittany are pagan.

the Vandals

The situation is frankly tended in North Africa where the Vandals persecute the Catholic church. This situation will have important political consequences. The Vandals, isolated from the remainder of the population, will quickly be overcome at the time of the reconquest of North Africa by the emperor Justinien.

Ostrogoths

Ostrogoths, under the control of their king Théodoric, settle in Italy in 489. Théodoric, makes build churches ariennes (of which some still exist with Ravenne). Ostrogoths are anxious to preserve their national identity. They do not mix with the local population and their religion contributes to it. Théodoric grants nevertheless its protection to the Catholic church. Ostrogoths will disappear from Italy, following the Byzantine reconquest.

the Visigoths

The policy of the Visigoths with regard to the Catholic church, is generally rather tolerant. Under the reign of Léovigilde (568-586), the situation is tended. The king hopes to unify Spain under the banner of the arianism and the Catholic church is the subject of multiple annoyances. Its successor Reccarède makes the opposite choice. He converts with Catholicism (Concile of Tolède in 589). The Spanish Church maintains henceforth the close links with the royalty.

the Francs

The situation is very different in north from Gaulle. The Franc which is established there are pagan. Under the influence of Remi, bishop of Rheims, their king Clovis converts with the Catholic religion into 496 or 506. Clovis becomes thus the first catholic barbarian king of old the Roman Empire of Occident. This event contributed certainly to the success of the frank kingdom in its fight against the other cruel kingdoms de Gaulle. In 507, Clovis obtains the support of the aristocracy Gallo-Roman to drive out the Visigoths ariens south of Gaulle. With the image of the Christian Roman Emperors, he convenes a council of the bishops de Gaulle (511).

the Anglo-Saxons

As from the 5th century, the Brittany (which will become later England), is gradually invaded by the Anglo-Saxon pagan, which drive back the Christian Bretons. During this obscure period, it is difficult to know Christianity up to what point could remain in the invaded areas. It is only starting from the end of the 7th century that the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms are évangélisés following the mission of Augustin of Canterbury, sent by the pope Gregoire Large the, which convert Aethelbert, king of the Kent (597) and founds évêché of Canterbury. At the same time, the Irish and Scottish monks of the monastery of Lindisfarne convert the king Oswald of Northumbrie (634). The other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms convert under their influence. Following tensions between the missionaries of Lindisfarne (the “Celtic” mission) and the others (the “Roman” mission) about the method to determine the date of the festival of Easter, place has important a council in Whitby (664). The Celtic Church adopts the Roman rite.

The Church of Occident of the Carolingians to feudality

In the middle of VIIIe century, papacy and the Carolingiens tie relations which will appear advantageous for the two parts, and doors of consequences for the continuation of the history of the Occident. At the request of Pip the Brief, the pope Zacharie brings by a letter its moral support with the elimination of the dynasty mérovingienne: Pip is made crown king. In exchange of this support, Pépin carries out in Italy two forwardings with an aim of raising the threat that the Lombards make weigh on Rome. It is in these circumstances that is created the pontifical State, which will disappear only in 1870. This alliance is even narrower under the son of Pip, Charlemagne. This one made adopt the Roman liturgy, at one moment when the extension of the frank kingdom corresponds to that of Western Christendom (except for British Isles and of small the Royaume of Asturies.

The complexity of the relationship between the Church (spiritual) and the State (temporal) in XIe-XIIe centuries

“Only one city and two capacities: the pope and the emperor”. € Jean DANIELOU, professor at the catholic Institute of Paris and André DUVAL, Dominican.

At the 10th century, papacy is with its low. It was the toy of the aristocracy Roman, and then put under supervision by the Germanic emperors. The whole of the religious world is under the influence of the feudal lords, who regard the function of bishop as a family estate. The idea of reform makes its way at the 11th century. Under the influence of the monk Hildebrand, the pope Nicolas II entrusts the election of the pope to the college of the cardinals (1059). In 1073, Hildebrand becomes pope under the name of Gregoire VII. It will launch what one calls the “ Gregorian Réforme ”. Its doctrines are elaborate in the “Dictatus papae”. It affirms the primacy of the pope there. While attacking the laic nomination, it enters in conflict with the Germanic emperor Henri IV. This one made deposit Gregoire VII by an assembly of bishops with Worms. It is the beginning of the Querelle of the Nominations. The pope made in his turn deposit the Emperor. Vis-a-vis the rebellion the many vassal ones, the emperor “goes to Canossa”: in behavior of penitent, it will beseech the forgiveness of the pope to the castle of Canossa in Tuscany (1077). It is only one trick. In 1080, it makes elect a antipape. It is only in 1122, that his/her son Henri V concludes with the pope Calixte II an agreement known under the name of Concordat from Worms. At the end of this compromise, the temporal nomination of the bishops and abbots are allocated to the emperor, while the pope grants the spiritual nomination to them. Papacy does not intend however to give up its claims. In 1139, the IIe council of Lateran affirms that “Rome is with the head of the world”. The conflict begins again of more beautiful in the middle of the 12th century: he opposes the emperor Frederic Barberousse to the pope Alexandre III, with a virtually identical diagram: the emperor makes indicate a antipape, while Alexandre III is combined with the league lombardes cities. The military conflict turns to the disadvantage of Frederic Barberousse who must sign the peace of Venice (1177). This episode will have an important consequence: with the IIIe council of Lateran (1179), it is decided that the pope will henceforth be elected in the majority of two thirds of the college of the cardinals.

Apogee of the Western Christian company in XIIIe century

The involved process in XIe - XIIe centuries culminates at the 13th century, under the pontificate of Innocent III. This one has a high design of the pontifical function. On the spiritual level, its authority is without division and is exerted through all Western Christendom by the sending of pontifical legates. On the temporal level, it makes a distinction between the “auctoritas” of the pope and the “potestas”, that the sovereigns hold of the pope. Innocent III intervenes in the temporal businesses of many States by excommunicating or depositing the sovereigns. It obtains in addition that several of these sovereigns declare vassal of the Holy See (in particular Jean without Ground, king d' Angleterre). Its successors take again the fight against the Empire incarnated by the Hohenstaufen Frederic II. The conflict without mercy which opposes the guelfes (in favor of the pope) to the gibelins (in favor of the emperor), turns to the advantage of papacy: thanks to the support of Charles of Anjou, the dynasty of Hohenstaufen is extinct and the Holy roman Empire eliminated from Italy. Papacy also triumphs in the East: with the IIe council of Lyon (1274) the emperor Michel VIII Paleologist, in favor of the “union of the Churches”, recognizes the primacy of the pope of Rome. These successes are of short duration: as of the death of Michel VIII, the Byzantine Church rejects the union, while in Occident the king of France Philippe Beautiful the, irritated by the interferences of the Holy See, operates a takeover by force: at the time of the episode known under the name of “Attack of Anagni”, it is caught some physically to the pope Boniface VIII (1303), who dies of the shock of this humiliation.

Crises of the Church in XIVe-XVe centuries

Come to settle temporarily with Avignon to prepare the Council of Vienna, the French pope Clément V ends up remaining there, considering the insecurity which reigns in Italy. This situation remains under its successors Jean XXII and Benoît XII. The papal administration will reach an unequalled degree of centralization hitherto, in particular as regards pontifical taxation, but the claims of papacy to control the Christian world cause opposition more and more, in particular on behalf of theologists like Marsile de Padoue or Guillaume d' Occam. Western monarchies like France and England, they also on the way of centralization, are rebiffent. It is however the luxury of the papal court which ends up scandalizing good number of Christians. The writer Pétrarque the draft of “Babylon news” and Catherine of His denounces it in terms even more violent one. Sensitive to these criticisms, the pope Gregoire XI returns to settle in Rome in 1377. Hardly elected official, his successor Urbain VI, extremely authoritative, enters in conflict with the cardinals. Under pretext that they elected the new pope under the constraint of the Roman population, a majority of those proceed to the election of a new pope, Clément VII, which settles in Avignon. Urbain VI refuses to be erased. It is the beginning of the Great Schism of Occident (1378 - 1417). The quarrel of obedience divides the entire Western Christian world. The schism is prolonged after the death of the two protagonists, who have each one a successor. The Council of Pisa (1409), muddle still a little more the situation by electing a third pope. In a disorientated Western Christendom, doctrinal questionings are born: in England that of John Wyclif condemned in 1382 and especially in Bohemia that of Jan Hus, less radical but more durable. The emperor Sigismond convenes the Concile of Constancy in 1414. This one condemns the theories of Wyclif and Hus. This last is carried out. The council deposits then the three popes and proceeds to the election of a pope who achieves finally the unanimity: Martin V. If the unit of the Church is restored, the need for reforms continues to be felt. Certain theologists see the solution in the regular behavior of councils (Conciliarisme). These theses are found besides in the decrees Haec sancta and Frequens of the council of Constancy. The Council of Basle hardly joined together in 1431, it is dissolved by the pope Eugene IV. The participants in the council rebiffent themselves and refuse to disperse. This mini-schism ends in the victory of the pope who operates skilfully by convening a new council with Ferrare then with Florence.

If the primacy of the pope on the councils is acquired for a long time, the papal capacity nevertheless is beaten in breach on several faces, that it is about the independence of the national Churches, as in France where the king promulgates the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, or of the persistence of radical movements, as in Bohemia, where the pope must compromise with Hussites. In addition, the conflicts at the top of the Church threw the disorder in the spirit of the faithful ones, whose piety takes a more personal character. In XVe century, Western Christianity is crossed by a mystical current, whose Maître Eckart and Jean de Ruysbroeck is the most known representatives.

  • Christian Occident

  • Cathares
  • Enquiry
  • Mystical female
  • Hunting for the witches

The time of the reforms

The Reform

Origins

At the end of the 15th century, the Church was in crisis. On the level of papacy and high clergy this crisis appeared by practices and behaviors which did not have any more any relationship with the faith.

a) the popes made the war and were worried more to grow rich to make respect the religion. They practiced the nepotism, i.e. they placed their protected (often their illegitimate children) at important stations. b) the high clergy practiced the office plurality of the ecclesiastical benefit. c) one sold the sacraments and one delivered to the sale indulgences (forgiveness of the sins) d) the low clergy resulting from the people is hardly informed and contributes to make religion a whole of practices closer to the superstition than of the faith. The belief in sorcery is very widespread.

It is among the catholics that one meets the initial reactions vis-a-vis this situation. The humanistic ones contribute to this handing-over in question.

The reform in Germany

Luther (1483 -1546) is a monk tormented by his safety, he thus wonders about the situation described above. Since 1515, it starts “to reconsider” the religion, and in 1517, when the envoys of the pope are able to sell indulgences, it posts on the door of its church 95 proposals, in which it condemns the sale of indulgences and the other abuses the Church. The pope the nap to retract and vis-a-vis his refusal excommunicates it. Luther will have to also face the emperor Charles Quint. This last, anxious to spare at the same time the pope and the princes of the Empire of which some had already rejoined the Luthéranisme (name of the doctrines of Luther), will hesitate between repression and the tolerance. Initially, it drives out Luther but in front of the protests of certain princes Lutherans (from where the name of Protestant religion), it grants to each prince the right to choose his religion, its subjects being obliged to follow it. Ideas of Luther:

  • the believer must be able to resort directly to the bible because the religion is a business of personal contact between the creature (the man) and its creator (God). In this Luther spirit the bible into German
  • safety translates can be hoped only by the faith and not by the practice of works.
  • the role of the clergy is decreased considerably by it. It is not any more the intermediary obliged between God and the men.
  • Luther simplifies the religion (the worship of the Virgin removes and of the saints, keeps only three sacraments and denies the existence of the purgatory).
From the political point of view it will line up side of privileged against the peasants and the small people which had believed to find a support in his doctrines and had revolted against their princes.

The Reform in Switzerland

In Switzerland, the Reform takes place as in Germany at the same time. The ideas of the Swiss reformer Ulrich Zwingli (1484 - 1531) are at the beginning close relations of those of Luther. Starting from 1529, it moves away from the Lutheranism and loses the support of the German princes. It is killed in 1531 with the battle of Kappel, which opposes the catholic Swiss cantons to Zurich. This military defeat slows down the development of Protestantism in Switzerland. The French reformer Calvin (see below), called, driven out, then recalled to Geneva (1541), makes this city a bastion of Protestantism. He makes condemn to dead and burn one of his adversaries, Michel Servet.

The Reform in France

The ideas of Luther inspire a French lawyer: Jean Calvin (1509-1564). This last propagates initially the Luthéranisme then transforms it into doctrines much more severe. Doctrines of Calvin (or Calvinism: The man is entirely submitted to God, it is not responsible for nothing. God envisaged the destiny of each human being, it grants or not the faith to him: it is PREDESTINATION. It is necessary to control according to WRITINGS (total examination of the places of worships, regulation of the appropriate dresses, jewels, etc). These doctrines, of which success is partial in France, are essential in Switzerland, in the north of the Plain Provinces (current Netherlands) and in Scotland. Moreover calvinists persecuted in England emigrate in North America (the United States current). On the political plan: Lutherans, calvinists and catholics clashed in bloody fights (the wars of religion). In 1598, the edict of Nantes put a term at it by authorizing the reformed worship.

The reform in England

In this country, the motivations are political and not nuns The king of England, Henri VIII, wants to be the only one to control his kingdom (absolutism). It thus wishes to get rid of the capacity which the pope holds on the Church of England. It finds a pretext (its divorce refused by the pope) and, in 1534, proclaims chief of the Church of England or Anglican. The Anglicanisme is a “mixture” of the doctrines calvinist, hierarchy and catholic ritual (decorations, records necessary to celebrate the glory of the absolute king). The calvinists who do not tolerate this adaptation are persecuted and exile themselves (see Puritanisme).

  • Thomas Muntzer

radical Reform, Jacobus Arminius

The Counter-Reformation or Reforms catholic

The Counter-Reformation is the reaction of the Catholic church vis-a-vis the Protestant Reform of which she wants to be the antithesis. In front of the religious crisis, many members of the Church saw the need for reforming the Church. It is the catholic Reform. The mission to slow down the Protestant Reform is entrusted to an religious order founded in 1537: the Jesuits (the Society of Jesus), " kind; of armée" with the service of the pope who is in charge with the intellectual formation (colleges) and the evangelization. The Enquiry, religious court created at the 13th century, is restored. It makes torture and burn the heretics. In 1543, the Index is founded, it acts of a commission of censure which draws up the list of the works whose reading is prohibited with the faithful ones. To devote these decisions, the pope finally agreed to join together the Concile of Thirty (1542-1563). This one decided:

  • to put a term at the many abuses (cohabitation of the priests, it not residence of the bishops, the intellectual ignorance of many priests)
  • to maintain the doctrines catholic in its Dogma S (the capacity intercessor of the Virgin Mary and the Holy S, the Eucharistie, capacity of the image,…)
  • to keep the traditions of the Roman Church (Latin prayer and Bible, the priest is not a man like another thus obligation of the Célibat), i.e. without taking account of the ideas Humanistes (in particular Érasme)
The development of the Counter-Reformation does not follow the same course in the various catholic countries. In an unfavourable policy with regard to the pope and of Spain, France did not accept the principles of the council of Thirty and was opposed categorically to the enquiry. The Counter-Reformation began in France only in the years 1580. It reaches its apogee under the reign of Louis XIV. In Germany, the Counter-Reformation led to the Guerre Thirty Year old.

XVIIe at the XXe century

The Catholic church and Lights

At the end of the 17th century, the first criticisms textual of the Bible start the intellectual monopoly of the Catholic church. At the 18th century of the atheistic philosophers (like Diderot or D' Alembert) or deist (as Voltaire) do not deprive themselves to criticize the Church.

The Catholic church and the French revolution

The French revolution raises the question of the report/ratio of the State and the Église in the catholic countries .

In the tread of the Gallicanisme, the French Assembly constituent adopts a set of measures which radically transforms the structures religious S into France:

  • It abolishes in February 1790 the monastic vows and removes in fact the orders and religious congregations,
  • It adopts on July 12th 1790 the civil Constitution of the clergy which subordinates the Church to the State, sets up Diocèse S corresponding to the departments, and of the priest elected S and bishops.

See also: civil Constitution of the clergy

The goods of the clergy are in addition confiscated. This decision involves a Schisme between the “official” Church from the point of view of the Revolution (i.e. “sworn in”) and the members of the clergy remained faithful to the Pape (“refractory” priests). In November 1791, a decree is voted against the refractory priests. After a few years of pure and simple persecution of the Religion, Napoleon i negotiates with the Pape the Concordat of 1801, which will be used later as model in many countries. This agreement marks a preoccupation with an appeasing and makes it possible despite everything to the pope to affirm his authority on the Church gallicane. The 19th century will be marked by the Ultramontanisme, a current of thought which recognizes infallibility and pontifical supremacy.

The Catholic church and modernity

The “modern” world, which emerges from the Napoleonean Guerres, radically changed, and, in spite of its efforts, the Catholic church will never find the position which it occupied during the Ancien Mode. In many countries the company is secularized.

In France, the relatively pro-clerical policy of the Restauration is carried by the revolution of 1830.

In Italy, the ideology of the Italian unification contributes to draw up the State against the Church. The Papal States, the last vestige of the temporal power of papacy, are absorbed by the new Italian State, and in 1870, the Pape is considered as prisoner in the City of the the Vatican. This business will be definitively regulated only under Mussolini by the Accords of Lateran (1929).

In addition, the Church must openly face intellectual currents atheistic and anticlericals. In France, the Positivisme of Auguste Count shakes the bases of the Métaphysique and the Religion. Thinkers such as David Friedrich Strauss or Ernest Renan reduce the Christ to her historical human dimension and . The natural advances in knowledge (in Geology and Paleontology in particular) put at evil the literal reading of the Bible. Vis-a-vis the crumbling of the Christian company, papacy reacts by a doctrinal stiffening. In its Encyclical Mirari your (1832), Gregoire XVI condemns the liberal Catholicism preached by the French Lamennais.

The progressive loss of the temporal authority paradoxically goes hand in hand with a reinforcement of the spiritual authority of the Pape. The proclamation of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception by Pie IX in 1854 goes in this direction. The positions of the pope are made reactionaries more and more: In 1864, the pope publishes the Encyclical Quanta cleaned, to which the document is added that one in general calls simply the “Syllabus”, which condemns without call 80 modern errors. In addition, of many pilot works of modernity are put at the Index. This tendency will culminate at the time of the ecumenical Ier council of the Vatican (1870), whose principal decision is to proclaim the infallibility of the pope as regards dogma. Some bishop S are in disagreement with the decisions, which will give place to a mini-schism: that of the Church old woman-catholic. The pope Leon XIII tries to take again an initiative which escapes the intellectual matter Church more and more.

The Catholic church and the social question

Consecutive social problems with the Industrial revolution (Revolt of the Silk workers…) the Christian and the Église with a renewal of their social thought pushed. Indeed, the deep economic, social and political transformations did not allow the Christian any more and the existing structures of the Église to exert the Charité under the same conditions. Refonder was needed the social action.

The first to dispute the idea that misery was inevitable and even necessary were catholic Ecclesiastic S and thinkers . One can quote Frederic Ozanam and Lamennais in France, Mgr Ketteler in Germany.

See also: social Doctrines of the Church

Some of these thinkers were initially condemned by the religious authority. It is necessary to distinguish various attitudes, that of the individuals (priest catholic S, intellectuals), that of the national Churches and the political parties which are bound there, and that of the Pape.

Little by little, an official position of the Church compared to the social problem took form. It leads in 1891 to the promulgation of the Encyclique Rerum Novarum by more the high ranking authority of the Church, the Pope Leon XIII. This attitude obliged the national Churches to modify their point of view and to admit that political measurements were necessary to relieve misery.

At the political level, this new current ends up giving rise to various political trainings which will gather later on under the name of Christian Democrat. This one was fought a long time by an important part of the catholics and the episcopate.

Protestant Churches since the Reform

As of the 16th century, develop within the Reform of the more radical movements called to play a part in the development of Protestantism: the Puritanism in England and the Baptisme in Central Europe. In addition, the new English colonies in North America will be used as refuge with many groups persecuted in Europe. This explains why the United States is still currently one of the most long-lived hearths of Protestantism.

In England the Puritans or nonconformists estimate that the Église Anglican was not sufficiently released from Catholicism; they are in particular opposed to the organization épiscopalienne to which they prefer communities the old ones and synods, i.e. a design congregationnalist of the Church. They are also in favor of a greater moral rigor. Vis-a-vis the opposition and with the policy of persecution of the majority of the English sovereigns (except under Cromwell) of XVIe and XVIIe century, they will emigrate initially towards the United Provinces, where they will come into contact with the tendency Baptist. The Baptists are opposed to the baptism of the children (pédobaptême), to which they prefer the baptism of the adults. They practice the baptism by immersion, rather than by sprinkling. Themselves challenge the term of “anabaptists”, whose their adversaries affublent them: it cannot indeed be question of a " rebaptême" , since that of the children cannot be regarded as valid. Their idea of the congregationnalism further goes than that from the puritans: the interpretation of the Writings rests on the consensus which results from a debate to which each member of the community can take share. It is about a very democratic design of Christianity. The excesses made by an small group of fanatic anabaptists who had seized the power with Münster in 1534 contributed to draw up against them the authorities as well catholic as Protestant. The Baptists are however pacifist, as preaching testifies some to Menno Simons (1496 - 1561), one their principal leaders, to which one of the Baptists independent groups owes his name: the Mennonites. Another group of Baptists, established in Moravie, bears the name of Moravian Frères.

At the beginning of the 17th century, Protestantism will open out in North America. The majority of the English colonies were founded by very diverse Protestant groups. One of the most known groups is that of the “Pilgrim Fathers” or “Pèlerins fathers” who found Plymouth with the Massachusetts in 1620, composed English Baptists. Starting from 1639, Roger Williams, driven out of Massachusetts, founds Churches Baptists in the colony of Rhode Island. The Quaker English William PEN (1644 - 1718) founds in 1682 the colony of Pennsylvania. It invites there the German mennonites, persecuted in their country, which arrive per tens of thousands. Calvinists Scot and Dutch found communities presbytériennes

Orthodoxe Churches since the Middle Ages

The Churches préchalcédoniennes since the Middle Ages

  • countries of the Refuge

  • nonconformists and the creation of the unitarian Church of England
  • the religious company of the friends, or Quakers

  • catholic Resurgence in romantic Europe

  • Movement of Oxford, anglo-catholic, in the Church of England
  • Missionary S and Colonialism
  • Birth of the radical Critical ( Higher Criticism )
  • Appearance of New religious movements in the United States:
    • the Church of Jesus-Christ of the Saints of the Last Days (Mormon )
    • Adventist of the Seventh Day
    • Pilot of Jéhovah
  • Birth of the Fundamentalism in the modernistic Protestantism
  • Crisis (1873-1961) in the Catholicism
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