The civilization élamite developed during High-Antiquity in the south-west of the Iran, in margin of the civilization mésopotamienne. It is well-known by the site of Suse, which established the link between Élam and the Mésopotamie. Élam strictly speaking is located towards the current area of the Fars, around the old capital, Anshan.

History

The Period proto-élamite

The first period is known as proto-élamite (3100-2600). This period is especially attested by archeology, on levels 16 to 10 of Suse (Period Suse III), Banesh average in Such Malyan (Anshan), IV in Tepe Sialk and IV C with Tepe Yahya. These sites present an archaeological context very near, which shows that they formed at this period a homogeneous cultural unit. The culture proto-élamite seems originating in the mountainous country of Anshan, the heart of historical Élam, and one can consider with a strong probability that it is at this period that the people élamite begin his expansion. The area of Suse, before related to Low-Mésopotamie, falls then undoubtedly under the cut from the mountain dwellers from the High-Country élamite, as shows it the cultural change which produced there towards 3100, which moves away it from the mésopotamienne influence to make it return in the context proto-élamite.

The period proto-élamite sees a particular artistic development, around the statuary in particular. But the most notable phenomenon of this period is the expansion of the commercial networks of the proto-élamites in direction of the Iranian Plate, which one can follow thanks to the discovery in several Iranian sites of shelves carrying a writing known as proto-élamite: in Suse, Anshan, Tepe Yahya, Tepe-Sialk, Shahdad or Shahr-i Sokhteh. This writing, undoubtedly appeared under the influence of that which develops then with Sumer, is the oldest form of writing attested after the writing sumérienne and the Hiéroglyphes of Egypt. Its disappearance without posterity with the culture proto-élamite deprives to us of any possibility of translation, and comprehension of the texts proto-élamites (which are according to any probability of commercial and countable nature).

The conditions of the collapse of civilization proto-élamite, between 2800 and 2600, remain still mysterious. When one obtains the first historical certificates on Élam in the mésopotamiennes sources towards 2600, this country is dominated by the dynasty of Awan.

The period paléo-élamite

At the period paléo-élamite (v. 2500 - 1600 av. J. - C.), Élam becomes a notable political power, which enters in fight with the empires mésopotamiens.

The first dynasty élamite attested historically is that originating in Awan, a city still not identified undoubtedly being in current the Lorestan. Its sovereigns dominate the remainder of the principalities élamites. They are several times returned in conflicts with the sovereigns of Sumer and Akkad, and the royal Liste sumérienne even reports that they would have dominated at one time the Lowone. The sovereigns of Awan nevertheless are overcome by the sovereigns of the Empire of Akkad, to start with Sargon, in spite of the recurring assistance of their allies of Marhashi. They preserve their independence however, and remain a threat for Akkadiens until the time of Naram-Sîn, which signs a peace treaty with king d' Awan, undoubtedly Khita, towards 2250. When the Empire of Akkad crumbles with dead of this king, new king d' Awan, Puzur-Inshushinak, succeed in constituting a powerful kingdom since Suse, that it began again. Its work remains nevertheless transitory, and its reign is undoubtedly completed in chaos, vis-a-vis the barbarians Gutis, who carry the dynasty of Awan.

After a few decades which are unknown for us, a new dynasty dominates Elam, that of Simashki, a city located either in Lorestan, or in the Kerman. The Western part of Elam, Suse included/understood, is since the end of XXIIè century under the cut of kings d' Ur, who succeeded in after a fashion subjecting the kings of Anshan, of Marhashi, and Zabshali. But when this dynasty weakens at the end of XXIè century, the king Kindattu of Simashki takes the direction of Elam, and it succeeds in seizing Ur in 2004, capturing its king Ibbi-Sîn. But he does not manage to maintain his domination on the Lowone. The apogee of Simashki lasts a few years, before the sovereigns amorrites of Isin, then of Larsa, new Masters of Sumer and Akkad, do not inflict several severe defeats to him.

Whereas kings de Simashki weaken unrelentingly, a new dynasty emerges since Anshan, that known as of Epartides, the name of its Ebarat founder, or of the sukkalmah , according to the title that its sovereigns were given. Elam acquires under their direction a great power. Shiruktuh succeeds in being made regard as a king higher than his contemporaries the kings of Babylon, of Eshnunna, Mari or Larsa. Its successor Siwepalarhuhpak tries to make real this theoretical domination while attacking Eshnunna. He carries it thanks to the support of Zimri-Lim of Husband and Hammourabi of Babylon, but he continues then his attacks in direction from his two combined, which succeed in after a fashion pushing back it while being made help by the other kings amorrites. Élam is not weakened for as much, and a few years later king Kutir-Nahhunte Ier plunders the town of Ur, in full Babylonian territory. But the dynasty crumbles thereafter, in the current of the XVIIè century.

The period médio-élamite

The period médio-élamite (1500-1100) begin with a badly known “dynasty”, that known as of Kidinuides, whose kings are undoubtedly not the members of the same royal family. The sovereign the best known one of this period is Tepti-ahar, which builds a funerary complex with Kabnak (Haft-Tappeh), in Susiane.

Towards 1400, a new dynasty is founded by Ige-halki (from where its name of Igehalkide dynasty), undoubtedly established by the king kassite of Babylon, Kurigalzu Ier, which subjects Kabnak and all Western Élam during several campaigns. With its continuation, and for the first time, Élamites maintain the cordial relations with the kings of Babylon, from which they marry girls. The principal kings of this period are Humban-numena (C. 1355 - 1345), large conqueror, and his successor Untash-Napirisha (C. 1345-1305), who founds the town of Hard-Untash (Choga-Zambil). After the reign of this one, Élamites run up against the attacks of the Assyrian king Tukulti-Ninurta I {{er}}, which succeeds in overcoming Kassites. Kidin-Hutran III (C. 1245 - 1215) lance several victorious raids in Babylonia, weakening the Assyrian positions in this country, but also those of Kassites.

The dynasty of Igehalkides is replaced shortly after by that of Shutrukides. A recent study however proposed the fact that these two dynasties could in fact of constituting only one of them. At this period, the Assyrie and Babylon are in retreat, that from which profit the kings élamites. Shutruk-Nahhunte (C. 1190 - 1155) and his/her son Kutir-Nahhunte III (C. 1155 - 1150) seizes after several years countryside Babylon, eliminating the dynasty kassite. Shilhak-Inshushinak (C. 1150 - 1125), other wire of Shutruk-Nahhunte, continues on the impetus of its predecessors, by subjecting most of Eastern Zagros, pushing until in Assyrian territory. The kingdom élamite is then with its apogee, but that does not last: a revolt in Babylonia drives out the occupants. The following king, Hutelutush-Inshushinak (C. 1125 - 1105) is overcome by the king of Babylon Nabuchodonosor I {{er}}, is it takes refuge in Anshan. The dynasty shutrukide disappears towards the beginning from, period of great upheavals in all Middle East.

The period néo-élamite

The period néo-élamite (~1000-539) is divided into three great parts, only the second, is marked by the fight with the Assyrian Empire, is well-known. For the first part (Néo-élamite I), which goes from 1000 to 753, one knows no king élamite. It is known that it is at that time that the Iranian people, initially the Mèdes and the Perses, settle in Western Iran. The latter take possession of the area of Anshan to VIIIè-VIIè centuries, melting a dynasty in this city, from where Elamites are driven out. When it reappears in the history about the middle of VIIIè century, the kingdom of Élam is centered on Susiane, its kings reigning since Suse.

The period Néo-élamite II (753-646), sees one century of fights against Assyrie. Under Teglat-Phalasar III, the Assyrians manage to dominate Babylonia, and are thus with the doors of Élam. The kings of this kingdom then will be combined to the Babylonians who try to shake the yoke of the occupants. In spite of some transitory successes, the Assyrians succeed in carrying it on Élamites, and maintain their domination on Babylonia. After a great revolt carried out by the Babylonian king Shamash-shum-ukin under the reign of his/her brother Assurbanipal, supported by Élam, the Assyrian king decides to finish some with this kingdom into 646. The king élamite Humban-haltash III is overcome in his own country, and Suse is taken and plundered. The power élamite is cut down, but Assyrie became exhausted to repress the revolts in Babylonia, and it is finally from there that comes its end a few years later, when the king chaldéen of Babylon, Nabopolassar, is combined to the king mède Cyaxare to finish some with the Assyrian kingdom.

The period Néo-élamite III (646-539) is only known in the broad outlines. Elam is divided into several small kingdoms of low importance (Suse, Malamir, Zamir, Samati, etc). Those appear unable to face the progression of the Persian kings Achéménides, who assimilate the heritage élamite to found a powerful kingdom. Cyrus II, constitutes an Empire by successively taking possession of the kingdoms mède, Lydian and Babylonian. It is undoubtedly when the latter tomb into 539 which one must consider that the last principalities élamites are they also integrated in the Empire achéménide.

Political organization

For the little which one knows, the kingdom élamite seems a kind of confederation joining together a whole of principalities under the cut of a king. Anshan and Suse are the city-pivot of the kingdom élamite, as the royal title of “King d' Anshan and Suse shows it” which its kings as from the time paléo-élamite carry. The other political entities élamites are, according to the times: Awan, Simashki, Sherihum (current the Bushehr), Bashime, Huhnur (Malamir), Kabnak (Haft-Tappeh), Hidalu, Madaktu for most important. Élam is thus a heterogeneous territory, which is comprehensible because of its topographic situation in a mountainous space. That undoubtedly explains why its history is made many periods over which one knows nothing him, and also why it forever be homogeneous culturally (as the religion attests it).

The king (élamite sunki- ) is the main character of the kingdom. He is the representative of the gods on Earth, and it is on their behalf that he directs Élam. The gods providers of the royalty vary according to the time: this perhaps Humban, Pinikir or Napirisha, and Inshushinak in Suse. The successional rule élamite is prone to debates. In the texts, the kings élamites often say “wire of the sister” ( ruhu-shak ) of their predecessor. This at summer interpreted following G. Cameron like the fact that the kings follow one another of uncle as a nephew by the sister. But recently F. Vallat proposed that it could be a question of the practice of the inceste in the royal family, the wire born of the union of the king with his/her sister taking precedence over the others in the succession. At all events, it is known that the successor of the king was designated the alive one of his predecessor and that it took part in the businesses of the kingdom. That is found in titulature of the dynasty of the sukkalmah , inspired by that of the governors of the kingdom of Ur III: the king carries the title of “ sukkal.mah of Élam” (“Large Regent” in Sumérien), whereas its designated successor was the “ sukkal of Suse “(“Regent”). He thus exerted the power in Susiane in the name of his superior. At the time néo-élamite, the rules of succession become more traditional: one follows one another of father as an oldest son.

Religion

Gods

The religion élamite was not structured, and there was a whole of divinities coming from the various areas of this country. The principal divinities of the royalty were Napirisha, the god of Anshan, the traditional capital of Élam, and Inshushinak, the god of the town of Suse. The character of Élam, divided between these two cities was marked by the title that its kings were given, who said “kings d' Anshan and of Suse”.

The other divinities vary according to the period and the place. Under the dynasty of Awan, Humban is the large god of Elam. Later, it is compared to Napirisha. An important divinity has all the periods is Nahhunte, god of the sun, divinity of justice, guards of the contracts and the oaths. The goddesses occupy a place importance: among them one counts Pinikir, originating in Anshan, Kiririsha, goddess of the town of Liyan (currently with the Bushehr), parèdre of Napirisha, and Narundi. Élamites venerated also gods of origin mésopotamienne, like Ishtar, Adad, Ninhursag or Nushku.

Places of worship

Élamites venerated their gods in temples, like the majority of the people of the Old East. Few temples élamites were released, apart from Suse, where they are built on the same plan as those of Mésopotamie. A characteristic of the temples élamites is the presence of crowned thickets ( husa ), perhaps related to the worship of deaths.

Like Mésopotamiens, Élamites built Ziggurat S, heiresses of the high terraces built since the 4th millenium on various sites of the Iranian Plate (of which Suse). Two are known: that of Suse, attested by the written sources, and that of Chogha Zanbil, which is currently the ziggurat best preserved of all Middle East.

The gods élamites were also adored in places of worship in the open air, like those found in the Fars with Izeh, Kurangun or Naqsh-e Rostam. Large low-reliefs representatives of the gods and scenes of worship had been carved there. Some of these places were used over very a long period, as Naqsh-e Rostam which is still a place of worship under the Sassanides.

Art

See also: Art élamite

Art élamite is especially known by the excavations carried out on the site of Suse, which delivered a great quantity of objects, in the absence of monuments, because of the techniques of the first diggers of the site who were not worried buildings. The excavations of the other capital élamite, Anshan, were goods less profitable. Another important site that of Chogha Zanbil, like Haft Tepe, both is dated from the period médio-élamite.

Art proto-élamite presents several original features. The artists developed an animalist art, which is found in the glyptique one, the statuary, the metallurgy, painting on ceramics; they also used geometrical reasons.

At the end of the 3rd millenium, the reign of Puzur-Inshushinak seems to have been one period ostentation for art élamite, as the many works of art testify some to this period found in Suse, in particular of the sculptures in sculpture in the round representing of the fantastic animals and that of the goddess Narundi.

The period of the sukkalmah sees the realization of the rupestral low-reliefs of Kurangun, representing a sovereign élamite in the presence of the large god Napirisha, figure which continues in the iconography of this time.

The period médio-élamite can be regarded as the artistic apogee of Élam. Large royal foundations are made by Tepti-ahar in Kabnak (Haft Tepe) and especially Untash-Napirisha with Hard-Untash (Chogha Zanbil), pertaining to worship center having only the ziggurat élamite whose ruins are always preserved. The reign of this sovereign was particularly brilliant on the artistic level, and the statue bronzes life size of his Napir-asu wife of it is one of chief-of works of art élamite.

With its continuation, kings Shutrukides undertake many rebuildings of temples with Suse, and a remarkable low-relief on moulded bricks of inspiration mésopotamienne placed in the temple of Inshushinak in Suse reached us, representing man-bulls and of the goddess-LAMA protecting from the palm trees. The oldest low-reliefs of the rupestral sanctuary of Izeh undoubtedly go back to this period.

The seals of the period néo-élamite show the rise of the interpenetration between art élamite and that of Persians, which will lead to the style known as " élamo-perse". Few artistic achievements reached us from this period.

Language and writing

The language élamite could be brought closer with certainty to no known language. It is a agglutinant Langue. Its translation is still incomplete. This language is known since beginnings of Assyriologie, since the élamite is one of the three languages written in Cunéiforme on the inscription of the Persian king Darius Ier with Behistun, which was used as a basis for the deciphering of wedge-shaped and the Akkadien and the Vieux Persian, even if the élamite part remained in the second plan, this language being a linguistic isolate more complex good to include/understand than the two others, which can be included/understood using still spoken languages.

The language élamite is divided into three great periods, the same ones as the historical periods: paléo-élamite, médio-élamite and néo-élamite, to which one can add the late élamite shelves of Persépolis.

There were three types of writings attested in Élam. Oldest, the Proto-élamite, develops at the end of the 4th millenium, and is attested especially in Suse, but also in Anshan and in other Iranian sites. It is about one of the oldest known forms of writing, with the writing Mésopotamie and the Egyptian Hiéroglyphes. It was still not translated, but it is known that the known specimens are relative to administrative or commercial operations.

The linear élamite is attested only at the end of the 3rd millenium, during the reign of Puzur-Inshushinak. It was supposed that it was about a derivative of the proto-élamite, but that is not sure. It was not translated either. It is however extremely probable which this writing and the preceding one was used to note the language élamite.

The written shelves found recently with Konar Sandal (Jiroft) could be well of a form of writing of élamite, it should however be waited until the discoveries progress and that one establishes the bonds of this one with the proto-élamite and the linear élamite.

The élamite was noted with the writing Cunéiforme mésopotamienne starting from second half of the 3rd millenium. The oldest wedge-shaped text in élamite attested is a peace treaty concluded between a king from Awan and the king Naram-Sin d' Akkad. The wedge-shaped élamite is written until the time Achéménide, the last batch of shelf of this writing which is known is for us that of the palate of Persépolis. The shape of wedge-shaped employee by Élamites tends to make a restricted use of the Idéogramme S, to privilege a writing phonetic than in Mésopotamie.

The kings élamites also often wrote in Akkadien, and the private archives of Suse known for the period paléo-élamite are in this language (which was probably spoken in this city); other shelves akkadiennes were found in Haft Tepe.